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INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY 
FOR TEACHERS 



Introductory Psychology 
for Teachers 



HV 



EDWARD K. STRONG, Jr. 

Professor of Vocational Education 
Carnegfie Institute of Technology 




BALTIMORE 
WARWICK & YORK, Inc. 

19 2 



copyright, i919 
Warwick & York, inc. 

BY 

COPYRIGHT, 1920 

BY 

Warwick & York, inc. 



OOP Y^ififfT OFFICE 
£ t92Q 



^PR 24 1320 






\o5 



3^^ 



(g)CU60l9O8 

/ 



To My Father and Mother 



PREFACE 

Certain principles have been established as fundamental to good 
teaching. Theoretically, all psychologists are agreed that a course of 
study should proceed from the known to the unknown and from the 
concrete to the general ; that students should learn by doing ; that the 
problem or project method of teaching is superior to memorization of a 
textbook ; that functional not faculty psychology should be taught ; that 
individual difi"erences in students should be taken into account ; that a 
beginning course should be designed for the benefit of the great ma- 
jority who never go farther; etc. 

The aim of this course is to meet these and other ideals of teaching 
in an introductory course of psychology designed primarily for the 
use of prospective teachers. Instead of beginning with the most 
uninteresting phases of psychology and those most unknown to stu- 
dents, the course takes up concrete experiences of everyday life, 
relates them to the problems of learning and individual differences, and 
so develops these two topics. Each general principle is discovered by 
the student out of his own experience in solving specially organized 
problems. Only after he has done his best is he expected to refer 
to the text and by then the text is no longer basic but only supple- 
mentary, clearing up misunderstandings and broadening the whole 
viewpoint. Behavior as a whole is considered from the start ; grad- 
ually it is subdivided and subdivided, so that finally such topics as 
"memory" or "attention" can be discussed without fixing in the mind 
of the student the idea that they are separate entities. And in general 
the course is prepared on the assumption that the majority of students 
are never going to specialize in psychology and should consequently 
be given the most interesting and useful facts and principles of psy- 
chology, regardless of whether or not they are usually reserved for 
graduate students. 

As the author has planned it, this course is followed by two com- 
panion courses. The first covers the general topics of how to re- 
member, how to get attention, economical learning, analysis and 
reasoning, method of teaching, drill and thought work, development 
of ideals, how to study, etc. The second course takes up man's 
instinctive equipment and applies both the instinctive and habitual 
principles of behavior to social, educational and industrial problems. 
Following such a broad survey of the most useful phases of psychology, 
can come the more detailed and systematic study of psychology on the 
part of students who are genuinely interested and can devote more 
than a year to the subject. 

xi 



xii INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

The course is conducted in a radically different way from prevailing 
courses. The student is immediately introduced to problems of be- 
havior taken as a whole and only after he is fairly familiar with psy- 
chological procedure, terminology and point of view is he given his 
psychological background. The odd numbered lessons present prob- 
lems to be solved and the even numbered lessons supply in a general 
way answers to the problems, together with a broader interpretation of 
Jie facts than the average student will discover for himself. For ex- 
ample, Lesson 7 outlines the familiar mirror-drawing experiment. 
This is perfonned, say on Monday. That night the experiment is written 
up and handed in at the class-hour on Tuesday. That hour is devoted 
to a general discussion of what was discovered in the experiment on the 
learning process. x\t the close of the hour Section No. 4 is given the 
class containing Lessons 8 and 9. The class reads over Lesson 8 on 
Tuesday evening. At the next class-hour Lesson 9 is taken up in the 
laboratory in the same way as Lesson 7. Each topic is handled as 
follows : ( I ) the student performs an experiment illustrating the prin- 
ciple to be emphasized, (2) he solves the problem as best he can and 
hands in his report, (3) he has the benefit of a class discussion upon 
the subject at the next class-hour, (4) he reads over what the author 
has to say on the subject, (5) he receives back his own corrected 
paper on the subject, (6) he reviews the subject once about every eight 
class-periods. All class discussion is based upon the laboratory experi- 
ences, not upon the author's presentation of the subject. The latter 
is only a supplementary aid, to correct misunderstandings and to fur- 
nish the student a standard by which to check his own work. 

Individual differences are amply provided for in such a procedure. 
The poor student obtains a concrete grasp of the main points of the 
course. The able and industrious student adds to this minimum a very 
much broader and more detailed understanding of the whole subject. 
The rate of progression is such that even the ablest student realizes that 
he is not getting all that there is in the course. All are thereby stimu- 
lated in a way that is not true when the rate is slow enoui^h to discuss 
thoroughly every detail mentioned in the text. 

The course can be conducted as a 4-hour course over one <|uarter. 
or 2 hours over two quarters, or 3 hours over one semester. Tlie lalwra- 
tory equipment can be supplied for $100. 

The text i.s printed as a book or in the form of 17 booklets. The 
advantage of the booklets is to prevent the student reading ahead. 
This is important as the even nuinbered lessons contain the answers to 
most of the problems. Where students read ahead they lose the train- 
ing rc^ulling from working problems out for themselves. Experience 



PREFACE I 

has shown they do about as good work as those who do not read ahead 
during this first course. In the second course, however, they commence 
to fall by the wayside, due to a lack of grasp of the subject matter 
which is secured by students who work out the principles for them- 
selves. 

So many have been of general inspiration and help in this work that 
space will not permit special mention of their services. Several who 
have used the text in its mimeographed form have aided in a very 
definite way in revising and clarifying sections. They are: Miss Kate 
Anthony, State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo. ; Professor 
C. M. Faithful Tennessee College, Murfrees1x>ro, Tenn. ; Pro- 
fessor S. C. Garrison. George Peabody College for Teachers ; Profes- 
sor W. A. McCall, Teachers' College, Columbia University, and Profes- 
sor J. Roemer, Sam Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville, Texas. 
Professor Y. Shoninger. George Peabody College for Teachers, helped 
me very considerably in writing up the description of a "sight-spelling 
lesson." To all these I owe very much. But I owe most to my wife, 
who has aided ])otli in matters of expression and of content and has 
checked tables and "])roof read" every new form of the material, 
whether script, typed or mimeographed or printer's proof. 

I desire also to express my appreciation for the courtesy of authors 
and publishers for permission to reproduce illustrations. I am indebted 
to The American Book Company for a figure from D. J. liill's 'The 
Elements of Psychology' ; to Dr. S. .V. Courtis and the Department of 
Education, University of Indiana, for a figure from the 'Second In- 
diana Educational Conference Report' ; to Dr. Courtis and The World 
Book Company, for figures from 'Standard Practice Tests' ; to Dean 
J. R. Angell and Henry Holt and Company for figures from 'Psychol- 
ogy' ; to Dr. J. D. Lickley and Longsmans, Green and Company, for a 
figure from 'The Nervous System' : to Dr. W. B. Pillsbury and The 
Macmillan Company for a figure from 'Fundamentals of Psychology' ; 
and to Dr. E. T^. Thorndike for figures from 'Educational Psvchologv', 
Vol. III. 

Carnegie Institute of Technolog\-. August i, 1919. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

Lesson Page 

What is Pliychology ? i 5 

THE LEARNING PROCEvSS 

Situation, Bond, Response — Sight Spelling Lesson 2 15 

3 18 

4 21 

Learning the alphabet — Mow to perform an experiment — How to 
plot a learning cur\e — How to write up an experiment — 

Characteristics of learning curves 5 23 

6 27 

Learning Mirror-Drawing — Speed and accuraev— Plateaus. .. . 7 32 

8 37 

Different Types of Learning 9 42 

Review 10 45 

Attitude, Feeling and ^Method as Relaled to learning 11 48 

12 49 

Learning a Vocal)ular\ — Rote numory — Associative -shifting. . 12 57 

14 61 

Retention — Effect of time interval upon retention — Relearning 

Primary and secondary retention — Memory span 15 69 

16 73 

Factors Affecting Strength of Bond — Repetition — interference — 

Intensity— Reorganization — Recency — Effect 17 8j 

18 83 

Reflexes, Instincts. Hai)its — (leneral Summary — Review 19 92 

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 

The Average Deviation as a Measure of Individual Differences. . 20 98 
Individual Differences as Found in (a) Mirror-Drawing, (b) 
Kansas Silent Reading Test, (c) Simple arithmetical 

processes 21 100 

22 103 

23 \m 

Effect of Environment, Heredity and Training 24 115 

Normal Surface of Distribution — Theory of — Applied to typical 

individual differences— Overlapping of children in the grades 25 126 

26 129. 

3 



4 IX'TKOUrCTOKV PSVCHOLOGV FUR TliACllliRS 

TABLE OF COXTRXTS (ContiiuRcl) 

Lesson Page 

Methods of Grading Students 2-/ 140 

28 143 

;'»iagaosis of Ability in terms ui Learning Curves — Diagnosis of 

ai>ilil3' — Use of learning curves in teaching 28 143 

29 155 

30 159 

Individual Differences and Educational Procedure— Courtis 

Standard Practice Tests 30 159 

Coefficient of Correlation 31 169 

Review 32 i77 

zz 179 

SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGY 

Introduction 34 180 

Mechanism by which Situations Stimulate Us — Cutaneous and 

kinaesthetic sense-organs — The eye — Other sense-organs 35 184 

36 193 

Space Perception Zl 201 

38 205 

39 211 

Mechanism by which Responses are Made — Muscular action- 
Fatigue and exhaustion 38 205 

Mechanism of the Connecting System — The neurone and 

synapse — The lower and intermediate levels — The upper level 40 215 

41 221 

Summary 4^ 228 

General Review of the Course 42 229 

43 229 

44 229 

Index 231—233 



LESSON 1— WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?^ 

Some of yon are doubtless familiar with the story from which the 
following incident is quoted. JJut it bears repeating. 

Sam had never told his love; he was, in fact, sensitive about it. 
This meeting with the lady was by chance, and altho it afforded 
exquisite moments, his heart was beating in an unaccustomed man- 
ner, and he was suffering from embarrassment, being at a loss, also, 
for subjects of conversation. It is, indeed, no easy matter to chat 
easily with a person, however lovely and beloved, who keeps her 
face turned the other way, maintains one foot in rapid and con- 
tinuous motion thru an arc seemingly perilous to her equilibriunx, and 
confines her responses, both affirmative and negative, to "U-huh." 

Altogether, Sam was sufficiently nervous without any help from 
Penrod, and it was with pure horror that he heard his own name and 
Mabel's shrieked upon the ambient air with viperish insinuations. 

"Sam-my and May-bul! Oh, Oh!" 

Sam started violently. Mabel ceased to swing her foot, and both 
encarnadined, looked up and down and everywhere for the in- 
visible but well-known owner of that voice. It came again, in 
taunting mockery. 

"Sammy's mad, and I am glad, 
And I know what will please him, 
A bottle of wine to make him shine. 
And Mabel Rorebeck to squeeze him!" 

"Fresh old thing!" said Miss Rorebeck, becoming articulate. 
And, unreasonably including Sam in her indignation, she tossed 
her head at him with an unmistakable effect of scorn. She began to 
walk away. 

"Well, Mabel," said Sam plaintively, following, "it ain't my fault. 
1 didn't do anything. It's Penrod." 

"I don't care — " she began pettishly, when the viperish voice was 
again lifted. 

*The relationship between class-room work and assignments will be shown in each 
Section by an outline, as follows: 



CLASS HOUR 


IN CLASS ! WRITE-UP 


READ 


1 
2 
3 


Introduction 
Discuss Lesson i 
Visit 1 st Grade Lesson 3 


Lesson 1 
Lesson 2 



6 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

"Oh, oh, oh! 
Who's your beau? 
Guess I know: 

Mabel and Sammy, oh, oh, oh! 
I caught you!" 

Then Mabel did one of those things which eternally perplex the 
slower sex. She deliberately made a face, not at the tree behind 
which Penrod was lurking but at the innocent and heartwrung Sam. 
"You needn't come limpin' after me, Sam Williams!" she said, tho 
Sam was approaching upon two perfectly sound legs. And then 
she ran away at the top of her speed. 

"Run, nigger, run — " Penrod began inexcusably. But Sam cut 
the persecutions short at this point. Stung to fury, he charged upon 
the sheltering tree in the Schofi eld's yard.* 

Why is it that this account is interesting to us? Why did Sam and 
Mabel enjoy being together ? Why were they so nervous and uneasy ? 
Why did Penrod call out as he did ? Why did Mabel get mad at Sam ? 
Why did she run away? Why did Sam get mad? What happened 
when Sam reached Penrod ? 

At this point some of my students have seenied to stop and, with 
lifted eyebrows, to question silently, "Is this a game of twenty ques- 
tions? and tM'-enty foolish questions at that? Can this be psychology? 

It is. All these questions are real psychological problems, quite as 
pertinent to the science of psychology as the dignified and dry-as- 
dust queries you doubtless expected. 

What then is psychology? 

In commencing any new course of study it is necessary to have some 
idea of what the whole thing is about. At the same time it is ex- 
tremely difficult to obtain a clear notion since most of the details are 
unknown to the beginner. It is only after one has experienced details 
that he is in a position to understand any summary of them. Conse- 
quently the following definition is just to aid the student in orienting 
himself. Only toward the end of the course will he be prepared to 
grasp its full meaning". 

Psycliology may best be defined as the science of behavior. 

There is the definition. The matters dealt with in the next ten sec- 
tions will give some of the various fields included in its bounds. 
/ ( 1 ) A crowd surrounded the automobile of Dr. John Linder of 
1509 Eastern Parkway, Brooklyn, yesterday, when the physician 
stopped at Glenmore and Vesta Avenues after a dog had dodged 
beneath tlie auto's wheels and had been killed. There were men and 

*Booth Tarkkigton — "PMirod and Sam," 1916, pp. 220-222. 







LESSON I 7 

women in the throng and they seemed to think that the physician 
had not tried to avoid the dog. 

Dr. Linder endeavored to explain that the most expert of motor- 
ists could not have dodged the dog, which ran barking beside the 
wheels of his auto and finally slipped under them. The crowd 
muttered angrily about motorists who had no thought for human 
lives, let alone the life of a dog, and Dr. Linder, realizing that the 
crowd soon might become dangerous, tried to start his car. 

His action aroused several men in the crowd who had been work- 
ing themselves into a fury, and one of them struck out at the doctor 
with his fist. The physician ducked, and reaching in his pocket, 
jerked out a glittering object of nickel which he thrust into his as- 
sailant's face, exclaiming: — 

"Stand off. Get back from this car. I'll shoot the first man who 
interferes with me." 

The man who had struck at the physician, with all the rest of the 
crowd, fell back hastily, and Dr. Linder, seizing the opportunity, 
applied the power to his car and slipped away. John Cargill, a 
blacksmith of the neighborhood, noted the number of the doctor's 
car, however, and hurried to the New Jersey Avenue Court where 
he got a summons for the physician, calling on him to show cause 
why he shouldn't be punished for violation of the Sullivan Law 
against carrying weapons. The physician had scarcely arrived at his 
home when the summons was served and he hurried back to court 
in his automobile. 

Cargill was present and Dr. Linder, after explaining the accident 
to Magistrate Naumer, declared that Cargill had been particularly 
aggressive. 

"He had a mob at his back," said the doctor, "and 1 was really 
afraid they would attack me. " 

"But your revolver?" questioned Magistrate Naumer. "Do you 
not know that under the present law you may not carry a weapon 
without a permit?" 

"Why, I only threatened the crowd with this, " replied the phy- 
sician as he pulled something from his pocket and snapped it into 
the Magistrate's face. There was a small report, and Magistrate 
Naumer clutched spasmodically at the desk in front of him. Then 
he burst into a laugh as he observed the glittering nickel cigar 
lighter which Dr. Linder held in his hand. 

Dr. Linder would not make a charge against Cargill, and the 
smith hurried out of the courtroom to the accompaniment of laugh- 
ter in which every one joined.* 



•New York Times, 1911 



/ 



y^^ 



8 INTRODUCl'ORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Why should a crowd become angry because a dog had been killed? 
Would Cargill have become as angry if he had been alone as he did 
when surrounded by a crowd ? Why did the crowd think Dr. Linder had 
a gun ? Why did Cargill want the doctor arrested ? Why did the crowd 
in the courtroom all laugh at Cargill? W^hy have you also enjoyed Car- 
gill's discomfiture? 

(2) A frequent sight is that of little boys fighting. Why do 
they like to fight? Why does a woman want to stop them fighting? 
Why will men pay half a million dollars to sit in the broiling sun 
and see a prize fight? 

(3) Consider any advertisement before you. What situation is 
depicted? Does it in any way express your feelings? Could the ad- 
vertisement be changed so that it would present a situation that 
would make you really want the commodity advertised? 

(4) Consider the following cases: — 

( 1 ) A college professor discovers that a wealthy old bach- 
elor keeps a large amount of money hidden in his house. After 
weeks of clever work he discovers where this money is kept and 
finally obtains a pass key. One night he enters the house, secures 
the money and on being discovered by the bachelor, kills him. 

(2) A young man by the name of Black from a prominent 
amily is engaged to marry Miss Smith. Mr. Jones, altho knowing of 
the engagement, deliberately makes love to Miss Smith and event- 
ually supplants Black. When Black discovers the fact, in a fury 
of rage, he kills Jones. 

^...-'— (3) C is attacked by a burglar in his own home and after a 
struggle, kills the burglar. 

"^ " (4) D recklessly drives his auto thru the streets of a village 
and kills a young boy. 

(5) E attacks two little boys in the woods and after tor- 
turing them for sometime, finally cuts one of them to pieces with 
a razor. 

In these five cases a man has killed another human being. Each is a 
murderer. Why shouldn't all be hung for their crime? Your answer, 
of course, is that the circumstances are diflferent. Can we conclude 
that the five men are different sorts of men on the basis of the circum- 
stances which are presented? How can we evaluate their conduct? in 
terms of their action, or in terms of the situations which confronted 
them, or in terms of both situation and response? 

(5) All respectable school teachers spend soine time every 
year condemning prize fights, bull fights, gambling, drinking, etc. 



LeSSON I 9 

Especially is this true of women teachers. Yet two of my acquaint- 
ances when visiting the exposition at San Diego several years ago. 
rode down to Tia Juana, in Mexico, and very much enjoyed a 
prize fight, lost a quarter at each of the gambling tables in the 
"joint" there, and afterwards loudly berated their fate because 
they arrived too late for the bull-fight. Is it conceivable that the 
difference in the situations which confront them at home, in the 
school, or at Tia Juana, is responsible for strong condemnation of a 
prize fight in one place and attendance at and enjoyment of one in 
another place? 

Do you think it possible to set down all the details making up the 
situation which confronts one and then to record the response made 
to this complex situation? If we knew all the details would we be 
alile to prophesy what a person would do? Cannot I be certain that 
you will say to yourself "7" and then "cat" after reading the next two 
sentences ? What does 3 and 4 make ? What does c-a-t spell ? 

(6) A man, walking with a friend in the neighborhood of a 
country village, suddenly expressed extreme irritation concerning 
the church bells, which happened to be pealing at the moment. He 
maintained that their tone was intrinsically unpleasant, their har- 
mony ugly, and the total effect altogether disagreeable. The friend 
was astonished, for the bells in question were famous for their singu- 
lar beauty. He endeavored, therefore, to elucidate the real cause un- 
derlying his companion's attitude. Skilful questioning elicited the 
further remark that not only were the bells unpleasant but that the 
clergyman of the church wrote extremely bad poetry. The causal 
"complex " was then apparent, for the man whose ears had been 
offended by the bells also w^rote poetry, and in a recent criticism his 
work had been compared very unfavorably with that of the clergy- 
man. The "rivalry-complex" thus engendered had expressed itself 
indirectly by an unjustifiable denunciation of the innocent church 
bells. The direct expression would, of course, have been abuse of 
the clergyman himself or of his works. 

It will be observed that, without the subsequent analysis, the be- 
haviour of the man would have appeared inexplicable, or at best 
ascribable to "bad temper," "irritability," or some other not very 
satisfying reason. Most cases where sudden passion over some trifle 
is witnessed may be explained along similar lines, and demonstrated 
to be the effect of some other and quite adequate cause. The ap- 
par«itly incomprehensible reaction is then seen to be the natural 
resultant of perfectly definite antecedents.* 



*B. Hart, The Psychology of Insanity, 1912, p. 73-74. 



10 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Did you ever "fly off the handle" at a perfectly innocent person? 
Have you ever ridiculed a person's clothes when the only trouble with 
the clothes was that the wearer had beaten you out in an examination ? 
If your friends were aware of one or more of such cemplexes, as 
Hart has described above, would it help them in understanding your 
conduct ? Would it help them to prophesy what you would do next ? 

(7) NoviT I want to be a nice, accommodating patient; anything 
from sewing on a button, mending a net, or scrubbing the floor, or 
making a bed. I am a jack-of-all-trades and master of none! 
(Laughs; notices nurse.) But I don't like women to wait on me 
when I am in bed; I am modest; this all goes because I want to get 
married again. Oh, I am quite a talker; I work for a New York 
talking machine company. You are a physician, but I don't think 
you are much of a lawyer, are you? I demand that you send for a 
lawyer. I want him to take evidence. By God in Heaven, my 
Saviour, 1 will make somebody sweat! I worked by the sweat of 
my brow. (Notices money on the table.) A quarter; twenty-five 
cents. IN GOD we trust; United States of America; Army and 
Navy Forever!"* 

The preceding paragraph and the one that follows are verbatim 
copies of the remarks of two different individuals. The former is that 
of a maniac and illustrates what is called "flight of ideas" ; the latter is 
that of a dementia prsecox patient and illustrates "incoherent speech." 

"What liver and bacon is I don't know. You are a spare; the 
spare; that's all. It is Aunt Mary. Is it Aunt Mary? Would you 
look at the thing? What would you think? Cold cream. That's all. 
Well, I thought a comediata. Don't worry about a comediata. You 
write, he is writing. Shouldn't write. That's all. I'll bet you have a 
lump on your back. That's all. I looked out the window and I 
didn't know what underground announcements are. My husband 
had to take dogs for a fit of sickness.** 

Offhand one wouldn't say that there was any order or system to 
these two paragraphs, particularly the second one. And experts have 
more or less held that view until recently, when careful study com- 
menced to show that there were rules and principles underlying even 
the ravings of the insane. Some day these will be as thoroughly under- 
stood as are physical and chemical laws today. 

(8) Beliefs have been held as peculiarly one's own, and so in- 
tangible that no one until recently has dreamed of measuring them. 

•J. R. deFursac, Manual of Psychiatry, translated by A. J. Rosanoff, 1908, p. 71. 
••J. R. deFursac. op. cit., page 72. 



LESSON I II 

Yet below there are given nine beliefs making up a sort of scale ex- 
tending from absolute belief (100) thru doubt (0) to absolute dis- 
belief (-100). This scale is very imperfect, being based on but a 
limited number of men and women, but it illustrates what can be 
done along the line of measuring intangible things. 

2 plus 2 equals 4. 99 

There exists an all wise Creator of the world 73 

A house-fly has six feet 47 

The most honest man 1 know will be honest ten years 

from now. 2 1 

"Blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the earth." -2 
Magna Charta was signed in 1 5 I 2. -22 

"It never rains but it pours." -53 

"Only the good die young." -74 

2 plus 4 equals 7. -99 

If one wishes to determine, for example, how strongly he believes that 
"(lark-haired girls are prettier than light-haired ones," he can compare 
it with those statements above and so obtain a rating for it. The writer 
cannot comprehend why the average man should rate this belief half- 
way between the fifth and sixth beliefs on the "scale," and the average 
woman half-way between the sixth and seventh. But they do. 

(.9) From the New York Times of about May i, 1914, is quoted 
"Tlie following" editorial comment on an article by a Superintendent of 
a Connecticut brass works which appeared in The Iron Age. 

At these works there was recently constructed a long incline up 
which heavy loads were to be wheeled in barrows, and premiums 
were offered to the men who did or exceeded a certain amount of 
this labor. They attempted it vigorously, but none succeeded in 
earning any of the extra money, instead they all fell considerably 
below the fixed task. 

Prompt investigation by an expert disclosed that the trouble lay 
in the fact that the men were working without sufficiently frequent 
periods of rest. Thereupon a foreman was stationed by a clock, and 
every twelve minutes he blew a whistle. At the sound every bar- 
rowman stopped where he was. sat down on his barrow, and rested 
for three minutes. The first hour after that was done showed a re- 
markable change for the better in accomplishment; the second day 
the men all made a premium allowance by doing more than what 
had been too much ; and on the third day the minimum compensation 
had risen, on the average, 40 per cent, with no complaints of over- 
driving from any of the force. 



12 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Apparently a man can do more physical labor by working: 12 minutes 
and resting 3 minutes out of every 15 than he can if he works all of 
every 15 minute period throughout the day. This principle is one of the 
fundamental principles underlying scientific management, which has 
been so much discussed of late in various publications. Possibly this 
principle might be utilized by you in your daily life. But you may 
need to know considerably more of the whole subject before making 
the proper application of it to your particular type of work. 

(10) How long does it take to say the alphabet? And how 
much time is required for one to say it backwards? And having 
said it once will one be able to recite it faster on a second trial? 
In Plate I is shown graphically just how much time is required to 
recite the alphabet forwards (i. e., 6.0 seconds) and backwards 
(i. e., 46.0 seconds), and furthermore how much time is required 
for each successive recitation up to twenty times. An average adult 
will decrease his time from 6.0 to 4.0 seconds in the one case and 
from 46.0 to 1 2.5 seconds in the second case. 

Why do we thus improve with practice? And how is the improve- 
ment accomplished? Where are the changes registered? 

Such a simple performance as that of saying the alphabet is after all 
very complicated. Watching a child mastering its intricacies gives us 
some little appreciation of this fact. Involved in this case are many 
of the problems of education — problems which are also fundamental 
psychological ones. We meet similar problems on every hand. Today 
a human being may be unable to use a typewriter, or swim, or dance, 
or play golf, or run a motor boat ; he may know nothing about banking, 
or politics, or how to fry a steak, or make a cake, or trim a hat. Yet in 
a short time we may find he has acquired any or many of these per- 
formances. This is such a common occurrence we pay little a'tenticn 
to it. But the more we consider the matter the more we should 
marvel at it. How does a person learn to typewrite? How comes it 
that his fingers hit the right keys altho his eyes are on the sheet from 
which he is copying? Or take another experience thru which we have 
all gone. How have we come to know that 7 plus 6 is 13 or that 7 
times 6 is 42? Have all persons learned these two performances in the 
same way? Is there one best way to learn them? If so, what is it? 
Why is it that some never can learn such things, — for we have known 
boys and girls and even men and women who can't. 

What has been given in this chapter could be extended indefinitely so 
as to bring in incidents dealing with the differences between whites 
and negroes or Chinese : problems dealing with poverty and its origin, or 



I<SSSON I 



13 




14 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

with success and its causes ; questions concerning delinquency in court 
or truancy in school ; methods of selecting salesmen for a great corpora- 
tion or telephone girls for the Telephone Co. In fact, it could be extended 
so as to include any and every relation that exists or may ever exist 
between man and man. All of these subjects may be discussed and 
many are discussed in other divisions of knowledge, such as history, 
economics, sociology, anthropology, psychiatry, criminology, advertis- 
ing, salesmanship, education, etc., but all belong in the science of 
psychology. 

Psychology has been defined as the science of behavior. It is con- 
cerned with the orderly presentation of the facts and laws which un- 
derly himian conduct. It not only includes this but also takes in the 
whole realm of living beings. Today psychologists are not only study- 
ing how man behaves and how he learns but also how rats, and guinea 
pigs, and monkeys, and birds, and even earthworms, behave and how 
they learn. This work with animals may seem foolish but it has al- 
ready led to a better understanding of many phases of human behavior 
and undoubtedly will lead to very much more. 

Psychology has not always been defined in this way. In earlier days 
it was defined as the "science of the soul" or the "science of mind." 
Both of these definitions led to insurmountable difficulties and have 
been discarded. A third definition, i. e., "psychology is the science of 
consciousness," is still held by many psychologists. With such a defi- 
nition one is led to emphasize conscious acts and more particularly the 
content of consciousness to the exclusion of such phenomena as are 
popularly grouped under the headings of behavior and conduct. But of 
late, the definition upheld in this book has been adopted by more and 
more psychologists. 

And they are deliberately broadening the field of psychology so that 
it shall include all of man's activity of every sort and kind. At the 
present time it is quite clear that those who uphold the definition of 
psychology as the science of consciousness are little or not at all inter- 
ested in applied psychology, while those who have espoused the defini- 
tion of psychology as the science of behavior are also those who have 
been most active in the application of psychology to advertising, sales- 
manship, vocational guidance, medical and legal problems, etc. 

Such a great subject as man's behavior cannot be covered in a few 
pages or in a few weeks. A beginning course must commence at some 
point and develop it in a systematic manner. This means that only cer- 
tain things can be considered here. What shall those things be? Pri- 
marily, we shall consider how man learns. This will lead into many 
related phases of man's conduct and, of course, if quite thorough 



LESSON 2 15 

would sooner or later touch all of man's behavior. But to attempt such 
a complete investigation would be too tremendous an undertaking. We 
shall have to be content with a general survey of the learning process 
with special reference to learning in the school. We shall take up one 
example after another; we shall actually learn things in order to have 
fresh in our minds just how it feels to learn ; we shall compare our 
progress with that of others in order to see how individuals differ ; 
and we shall compare one performance with another in order to draw 
up general principles and laws which will explain what learning is and 
how it is accomplished. 

LESSON 2— STUDY OF A SIGHT-SPELUNG LESSON 

At the next class-hour you will witness a "spelling" lesson in the 
first grade.* 

Here little children are learning to write a given word upon the 
board. The emphasis is upon writing the whole word and not upon the 
letters in the word. And as the emphasis thruout the first g^ade 
is upon whole words, some teachers maintain that spelling is not taught 
until the second or third grades. We will not quarrel with them. We 
will note, however, how the little child is led step by step to the point 
where he can write a word on the board after seeing his teacher do it. 

The Sight-Spelling Lesson is employed by many teachers in the ele- 
mentary school to train children in spelling. It consists essentially of 
showing a word for a moment and then requiring the child to reproduce 
the word in writing. It is one of the methods used in training pupils to 
read words, and even sentences, before they know their letters. 

THE RELATIONSHIP OF A "SIGHT-SPELLING" LESSON TO LESSONS IN 
READING AND WRITING. 

In order to get the right setting for the understanding of a sight- 
spelling lesson it will be necessary to go back and get clearly in mind 
just what a teacher has attempted to accomplish before commencing the 
teaching of spelling. This preliminary work as given in a typical 
school can be roughly divided into four steps : 

First. The children relate their experience in class. Day after 
day the children are encouraged and led to talk about things that 
interest them. 

Second. These experiences are written on the hoard. On a Monday 
about three weeks after the opening of school, the children are asked 
for example, to tell their experiences since last Friday. One little boy 

* In some cities this method of teaching is not employed. In suck cases the 3rd 
class hour can profitably be spent in a discussion of this lesson. 



l6 INTRODUCTORY PSVCHOIvOCiV FOR t'KACHERS 

may reply as follows, his sentences being written on the hoard as he 
gives them : — 

"I went to the country on Saturday. 

I played with Fred. 

We played leapfrog. 

We played ball. 

We had a happy time." 

The children are here given a clear conception of the fact that what 
they say may be recorded on the board— that writing has something to 
do with their very thoughts. 

Third. Drill is commenced leading to "recognition" of the sen- 
tences, phrases and words. The teacher asks: "Who can find where 
it tells, 'I went to the country on Saturday?' Who can find where it 
tells, 'We played leapfrog?' Where does it say, 'We played ball?' Where 
does it say, 'I played with Fred?'", etc. At first these sentences are 
remembered largely because of their position on the board. The child 
remembers the order in which the sentences occurred and makes his 
guesses accordingly. Soon, however, the recognitions are made in terms 
of the form of the whole sentence. 

Right from the start whole sentences or phrases or words are thus 
drilled upon. Slowly for some children, more quickly for others, the 
forms of the words or sentences are remembered and connected with 
their sound. As the word is pronounced by the teacher and then 
pointed to by some child, the teacher rewrites the word and calls their 
attention to the fact that "This (pointing to the written word) always 
says 'ball' ". After three or four days of such work in which the ques- 
tion has been all the time, "where is this," the children are ready for the 
fourth step. 

fourth. Drill is given leading to "recall" of the sentences, phrases 
and words. Here the characteristic question is, "Wliat does this say?" 
The child here must verbally reproduce from memory the words and 
sentences as the teacher points to their written symbols. Here again, 
as the words are pointed to and then named by the child, the teacher fre- 
quently rewrites the word (for example, "ball") at the side of the sen- 
tence and says, "This always says ball." 

At this point writing may be introduced to the child. The teacher 
choosing some particular word, asks the children to watch her write it. 
The children watch the word as it is written and after it has been 
erased go to the board and write it as best they can. 

The fourth step is really two steps — one deals with the recall of the 
sound of the word when it is seen (reading) ; the other deals with the 
reproduction of the form of the word after it is seen (writing). The 



LESSON 2 17 

former means that the child will properly move the muscles of his 
speech organs when confronted by the sight of the word ; the other 
that he will properly move the muscles of his fingers and arm when 
confronted by the sound of the word or after having seen the word. 

In a diagramatic way we can illustrate these two processes as 
follows : — 

Reading. Seeing word "ball" saying the word "ball." 

Writing. Hearing the word "ball" writing the word "ball." 

" Seeing word "ball" writing word "ball." 

The method of developing the second part of this process of "re- 
call" is called "sight-spelling." It might more properly be called "sight- 
writing," for the emphasis iti the drill is upon a reproduction of the 
form of a word previously seen, but not now present to sight. 

THlv SIGHT-SPELLING LICSSOX IN DET.ML. 

The procedure in a sight-spelling lesson is as follows : The teacher 
pronounces the word "ball," then writes it on the board at the usual 
rate of writing, then pronounces the word "ball" again, allows the chil- 
dren to look at it for a moment, and erases it. Then she tells them that 
she is going to call upon them to go to the board and write 'the word 
there. She then rewrites the word, pronouncing it as she does so, and 
may have the class also pronounce it. After they have looked at it for 
a moment, she erases it. Then one or more children are sent to the 
board to write the word. Some of the children may get it correctly 
while others will fail. Those who have failed may be given one or more 
chances to see the word written again or not as the teacher is disposed. 
Then another word is presented and the procedure is repeated. (One 
of the most important elements in the whole process is the matter of 
having the child watch the teacher as she writes the word. It is not 
enough for the child to see the completed word, he must sec it as it is 
written. Otherwise, he may attempt to write it backwards or in some 
other way than the correct method.) 

As this drill is continued each child learns how best to utilize his 
time while the word is exposed on the board so as to be able to write 
the word later. These methods which children adopt have not been 
wc-rked out by adults as yet. When they are understood in all probabil- 
ity we shall be able to help the child develop the best method for him. 
What actually takes place, no matter how it is done, is that the child 
sees the word written on the board and then after it is erased goes to 
the board and reproduces the form of the word as he has previously 
seen it. (Of course it is not meant that the reproduction is anything 
but an approximation at first, but with practice there results a fairly 
good imitation of the teacher's form.) 



l8 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

SUMMARY 

The above paragraphs have presented (i) what a sight-spelling les- 
son is, (2) the relationship between a sight-spelling lesson and other 
lessons in the first grade which have led up to it and (3) the detailed 
elements in a sight-spelling lesson We now have a general idea of the 
relationship of spelling to conversation (oral expression), reading 
and writing. 

A clear understanding of these points will aid you greatly in grasping 
and appreciating each move of the teacher and each response of the 
children when you witness the class exercise. 

LESSON 3— BEHAVIOR ANALYZED INTO ITS TWO COM- 
PONENTS, SITUATION AND RESPONSE 

At this stage in the course it will be impossible to discuss the various 
steps in detail relating to the sight-spelling lesson or to work out the 
various psychological principles involved in any one step. To do so 
properly would necessitate a fairly complete knowledge of psychology — 
the very thing we, of course, do not have at our disposal just now. 
Before this course is finished, however, we shall return to this lesson- 
method and attempt to understand the psychological principles under- 
lying it. 

For the present it will be sufficient to get clearly in mind one big 
conception which the following three questions and their answers 
will present. 

IVhat is the object of the lessonf Evidently, to teach the children 
how to spell the words presented. Or possibly a better answer is, — to 
arrange matters so that the children will learn the spelling of certain 
words. Consequently, every detail in the whole lesson (every act or 
idea of teacher or child) is related to this central proposition "the 
child learning." (And conversely, if there is any detail which does not 
actually aid the child to learn, it is out of place.) 

Hoxv may all the details in the entire lesson he divided into tzvo 
groups as they relate to the child's learning? On the one hand the 
child sees and hears certain things; that is, the child is influenced by 
certain things and, on the the other hand, the child does certain things. 
All the actions of the teacher, whether spoken words, written words, or 
gestures — all influence the child. Likewise, all the actions of other 
children in the room influence the child. And because of all this the 
child makes certain responses. Obviously then the details in any les- 
son fall into the two groups, ( i ) those which influence the child, and 
(2) those which constitute the child's reaction. 



LESSON 3 19 

How may ivc designate these tzvo groups of details which make , ^tf 
the spelling lesson! All those details of the lesson which go to in 
flnence the child, all combined together, we may call the Situation. And 
all those details which constitute what the child does, we may call 
the Response. 

To illustrate these two terms, take this single incident in a spelling 
lesson. Following a discussion of a "leaf" and the writing of sen- 
tences on the board concerning a leaf the teacher then turns to the mat- 
ter of teaching the writing of the single word. She turns and writes 
the word "leaf" on the board. Pointing to the word on the board, she 
announces. "This is the word leaf." Then she erases the word. "Now 
I am going to write the word 'leaf again on the board. I want you to 
watch carefully and see how I do it. After I have written it on the 
board, I am going to erase it. Then I am going to ask you to come to 
the board and write it. Now look carefully and get a good picture of 
'leaf'." She then writes the word on the board, waits a moment, and 
then erases it. Then she calls on Carl to go and write the word on the 
board. Carl goes to the board and writes the word in his crude style 
of handwriting. 

The Situation and the Response, as relating to Carl, are made up as 
follows, commencing at the point where the teacher writes the word 
"leaf" the second time: — 

SITUATION RESPONSE 

1. Carl in school. General state of attention (i) to 

2. Presence of teacher and school- class, (2) to teacher, and (3) to 
mates. specific topic under discussion. 

^. Preceding events concerning a 
•leaf." 

4. Teacher's instructions aboutnotic- 
ing the word on the board and 
then reproducing it after she had 
erased her writing. 

I, 2. 3, and 4 above. 4. Carl rises from seat, (5) walks 

5. Teacher writes the word "leaf" to board, (6) writes word 'leaf" 
on the board. on board, and (7) returns to his 

6. Teacher erases word. seat. 

7. Teacher calls on Carl to write 
word on board. 

I, 2, 3, and 4 above. 8. Carl feels pleased. 

8. Teacher nods her approval of his 
performance. 

It is evident that the Situation comprises all the details which in- 
fluence Carl in any way, while it is also evident that the Response 



20 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

coir iprises all the details of Carl's behavior in responding to the situa- 
*'aon. It is equally evident that the Situation and the Response are 
very complicated, being made up of many details. 

The first point to get in this course is that the learning process can 
be and must be resolved into the two factors "Situation" and "Re- 
sponse." All learning is the doing of something (Response) because 
of the influence exerted by certain other things (Situation.) 

ASSIGNMENT TO BE HANDED IN AT THE 4TH CLASS-HOUR. 

1. Prepare a list of 50 situations in daily life which will ordinarily 
produce a certain response. List them as follows : 

SITUATION RESPONSE 

1. Stick a pin into some one. Person jumps. 

2. Sudden noise. Person jumps. 

3. Letters "c-a-t" sounded. Person thinks "cat." 

4. "2 plus 2" seen. Person thinks "4." 

5. Man meets woman he knows on Man raises his hat. 
the street. 

Etc. 

2. Be prepared to discuss what you saw in the school room in terms 
of situation and response. 



LESSON 4--^EHAV10R ANALYZED INTO ITS COMPONENTS 
SITUATION AND RESPONSE (Continued).* 

In Lesson 3, we found that all the details in any lesson may ke 
divided under the two heads, situation and response. Just to strengthen 
our grasp on this fact let us prove it in another case. We will *^e 
the method of teaching reading as given in Lesson 2, and consider n»t 
the behavior of a single person but the general principles underlykig 
the behavior of all learners. 

Since language is the sine qua non of reading we may say that the 
earliest steps in such learning are taken before the child's first birth- 
day. A probable situation is the entrance of the father and the mother's 
statement, "Here comes dadda." If the baby happens to make a noise 
immediately thereupon, which approximates in any way the word 
"dadda," it will be greeted with wild enthusiasm by the parents, which 
will arouse the interest and pleasure of the baby. All of the baby's 
accidental successes will be so delightfully welcomed; his inopportune 
remarks ignored. After many such occurrences, the presence of the 
father and the sound of the word "dadda" will practically always cause 
the baby to say "dadda." After still more practice the sight of the 
father will in itself be sufficient to cause the baby to call him by name. 
For the situation has become linked to its appropriate response in the 
baby's mind. 

Many words are learned in like manner. The vocal organs are in- 
creasingly practiced by crying, cooing, laughing and chance expressions, 
until the child has gained the ability to make all the sounds in the lan- 
guage. After this the vocabulary grows rapidly as names can be re- 
peated after one or two hearings. 

In all cases we have first the presence of the object and the sound ©f 
the name calling up the pronunciation of the name. After this is ac- 
quired the mere presence of the object is sufficient to induce the re- 
sponse of the word. Later the physical presence of the object is unnec- 
essary. The ability to express ideas, desires, etc., develops. 

Before the child begins to read, then, it has already learned that 
spoken words stand for visible objects. He has now to learn that visible 
words stand for spoken words, that there can be two situations leading 
to the same response. 



The object 
The word "flag" 




equals spoken "flag.' 
equals spoken "flag.' 



*CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE UP 


READ 


4 

5 


Discuss Lesson 3 
Experiment, 5 


Lesson 5 


Lesson 4 



21 



22 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

The ability to pronounce the word when one sees it in written form 
is fundamentally the ability to read. (Of course, the reading of a 
well-trained person involves much more than pronouncing one word 
at a time in response to its written form. Smooth reading with ex- 
pression is due to the development of these fundamental processes so 
that they operate smoothly and automatically together with the devel- 
opment of other habits dealing with expression and the like.) 

What the teacher must do then is to form a connection between this 
situation (the word "flag"') and the desired response (saying "flag"). 
This is what she does in the method outlined in Lesson 2, i. e., 

1. Writes sentences on board. 

2. Asks for recognition. 

3. Demands recall. 

This it is clear on a little consideration is the wise course of proce- 
dure. For at first the child has no response at all to the written words, 
"We have a big flag." The white chalk marks on the board mean noth- 
ing to the child. They mean, indeed, much less to the child than 
Chinese symbols do to you, the reader, for the child does not even 
know that they stand for spoken words — for objects and actions. But 
the teacher writes the words, "We have a big flag" on the board and 
pronounces the sentence to the class. Thus a weak link is formed be- 
tween the sight of the whole sentence and its sound. 

Then the child is asked to pick the sentence out from others. This is 
not so difficult as recalling it would be. We all know it is easier ta 
recognize a face as having been seen before than to give the name be- 
longing to the face. Even a faint connection between situation and 
response will lead to recognition. 

And, of course, every such recognition strengthens the connection. 
After some drill the teacher can successfully ask what would have been 
useless before, that is, that the child recall what a given sentence says ; 
i. e., respond to the question, "What does this say?" pointing at the 
same time to the written sentence. With recall the last step is reached 
and only more drill is needed. Then the child can read. 

Reading is then at bottom, the moving of the muscles of the throat in 
response to certain curlicues on a page or blackboard. The proper 
control of these muscles is learned before school age. The joining them 
up with the new situation, the curlicues, is the task of the teacher of 
reading. 

The object of a school lesson seems then to be the formation of a con- 
nection between a given situation and a desired response. An approved 
primary method is so constituted that it leads naturally from a state in 
which there is no connection, thru a stage where there is slight con- 



LESSON 5 23 

nection, and finally to a stage where a fairly strong connection is estab- 
lished and made stronger by drill. 

SUMMARY 

Two principal points have been made in the course so far. First, you 
have seen what psychology is and what psychologists are attempting 
to do. And second, you have been shown that all behavior can be re- 
duced to two very broad conceptions of "situation" and "response." 

Hand in at the next class-hour the best definitions you can prepare 
of the three words, "psychology," "situation" and "response." 

OBJECT OF LESSONS 5 TO 20. 

With the foregoing statement before us of what a school lesson is 
aimed to accomplish we are now ready to commence an analytical study 
of the learning process. Very simple tasks of learning will be assigned 
and thru careful recording of notes about how the task was accom- 
plished many of the fundamental principles of learning will come to 
light. 

The next class-hour will be devoted to such an experiment. Read 
over the instructions in Lesson 5 up to the heading: "Instructions for 
writing up the results." But do not practice the experiment. If you do 
you are quite likely to get results at the next class-hour which will be 
misleading. 

LESSON 5— HOW DOES ONE LEARN TO SAY THE 
ALPHABET? 

The first laboratory assignment in a new course of study must neces- 
sarily be very simple, else the beginning student will be swamped with 
all the details confronting him. Consequently, we shall study here 
what is apparently a simple problem, i. e., the processes involved in 
learning the alphabet — particularly in learning to say it backwards. 
But altho the assignment in one sense is very simple, yet in another 
sense it is most profound. No one can list all the processes that are 
involved here nor understand any of them absolutely. 

The student commencing this course should carry with him much of 
the spirit of the early pioneer. He is embarking on a cruise of explora- 
tion in which some of the landmarks are known and chartered for him 
but most of the smaller points of interest are not charted and still re- 
main to be discovered. This course in educational psychology will 
aflford every student many opportunities for discovering facts and prin- 
ciples regarding the learning process not now recorded in any textbook. 
Consequently attack this seemingly trivial assignment in the spirit of 
exploration and with the determination to discover new things. 



24 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOlvOGY FOR TEACHERS 

the; EXPERIMENT 

1. Problem. What happens when you recite (i) the alphabet for- 
wards ten times, and (2) the alphabet backwards ten times? 

2. Apparatus. A watch with a second hand. (If you do not have 
such a watch, obtain one from the instructor.) 

3. Procedure. Two persons will work together; one will be the 
subject (person to do the reciting") and one will be the experimenter. 
When both are ready the Experimenter will watch the second hand and 
when k reaches 58 on the dial will call out, "Get ready," and when it 
reaches 60 will say "Go." Subject will then recite the alphabet as fast 
as possible. When the Subject reaches the letter "Z" the Experimenter 
notes the number of seconds that have elapsed and records it in his notes. 
The Experimenter will find it necessary to have before him tlie alphabet 
written out so that as the Subject recites he may follow with his eye 
and note any mistakes in the Subject's recitation. 

After each of the 10 trials, the Experimenter should record (a) the 
time required by the Subject to recite the alphabet, (b) any mistakes 
in doiBg so, (c) any changes in method he may note, (d) any other 
interesting facts. 

Having finished the above, repeat the whole procedure but this time 
recite the alphabet backwards, instead of forwards. The Experimenter 
should write out the alphabet backwards in order to aid him in catching 
the mistakes of the Subject. The Experimenter will not prompt the 
Subject except to say, "No," when the Subject gives a wrong letter. 

As before, the Experimenter will record (a) the time required by the 
Subject to recite the alphabet backwards, (b) any mistakes in doing 
so, (c) any changes in method, (d) any other interesting facts. 
(Finish the above before reading further.) 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR WRITING UP THE EXPERIMENT. 

If possible both partners should arrange to prepare the assignment 
together. If this is not possible, then the Subject should secure a copy 
of the Experimenter's notes. Both should prepare this assignment and 
hand it in at the next class-hour. 

How to plot a learning curve. Refer to the curves shown in Plate I, 
as a model. In those curves twenty trials are shown, whereas yours 
will record but ten trials. The curves of no two person are alike, con- 
sequently yours will not agree exactly with the two given in Lesson i. 

Plot the data you have secured in the two parts of the experiment. 
Do as follows: — Secure a sheet of co-ordinate paper. Draw a line 
across the bottom of the sheet about a half inch from the bottom. Eh-aw 
another line at right angles to this base line along the left-hand side of 
the ■'] et, about a half inch from the edge of the paper. At Latervals of 



LUSSON 5 25 

about one-fourth inch number consecutively from i to 10 underneath 
the base line. Number the lines along the vertical line consecutively 
from I up as far as the paper permits. Call the base line "o." 
The nttmbering along the base line represents the successive trials from 
I to 10. The numbering along the vertical axis represents the amount of 
time consumed in reciting the alphabet. Hence at the right of the figure 
10 write the word "Trials" and at the top of the page above the last 
number in the vertical scale, write the word "Seconds." 

When this is done, note the time-record in the first recitation of the 
alphabet. Suppose this is 6 seconds. Now mark a small "x" at the 
intersection of the Hne numbered "6 seconds" and the line numbered 
"trial I." Suppose the second trial was done in 5 seconds. Then mark 
similarly a small "x" at the intersection of the 5-second line and the 
2nd-trial line. (If it was ^Yo seconds, instead of 5, the cross would be 
made half- way between the 6-second and the 5-second line.) When you 
have marked the 10 "xs," then connect them together with straight 
lines. This jagged line represents the learning curve in saying the al- 
phabet forwards. Draw the learning curve for saying the alpha- 
bet backwards in the same way. 

Give a title to the sheet, such as "Learning Curves for Reciting the 
Alphabet Forwards and Backwards." 

How to zifrite up the experiment. 

1. The problem. State what is the problem you are attempting to 
solve. In this case the problem may be stated as "How Does One Learn 
to Say the Alphabet ?" 

2. Apparatus : State under this heading what apparatus you used in 
solving the problem, as "A watch with a second hand." 

3. Procedure. State what you did in order to secure your re- 
sults. Give date and names of the Experimenter and Subject, first of 
all. In this course you need not copy the procedure as given in the text 
but may state, "Followed instructions as given in manual, except 
." Then give in detail any deviations. 

4. Results. Here record (i) your time records, (2) mistakes made, 
(3) changes in method, (4) other interesting facts, (5) your curves. 
In other words, record under this heading the material you have gath- 
ered together in performing the experiment. 

5. Interpretation. Here ordinarily you would summarize your 
results and explain what they mean. At the beginning of this course 
you will be aided in interpretating your results by being given specific 
questions to answer — questions which help you summarize and explain 
your results. In this case, answer the following questions : 

a. How do your two learning curves differ? Explain why. 



26 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

b. In what respects do the two curves agree? Explain. 

c. Why is it possible to recite the alphabet faster and with fewer 
mistakes on the tenth trial than on the first trial? Has the Situation 
changed? Has the Response changed? Has there been any other 
change which you cannot include under the headings "Situation" and 
"Response"? 

d. Why do you suppose in Lesson 3, Carl could write the word 
"leaf" on the board after having seen his teacher write it and not be- 
fore? What changed there — the situation, the response, or some other 
third thing? 

6. Applications. Record concrete cases where principles developed 
here will apply in other phases of life. For example, in learning to use 
a saw, one will saw thru a 6-inch plank very slowly the first time and 
will do a pretty poor job. Next time the job will be done in less time 
and with fewer ragged edges. Successive trials will result in better 
and better work. The greatest progress will be made in the early 
trials. 

In this lesson you have probably been confronted with several new 
things, as follows : 

1. Saying the alphabet backwards. 

2. A learning curve and its characteristics. 

3. Plotting a curve. 

4. Writing up the laboratory experiment according to a prescribed 
outline. 

It will require a number of further lessons before the last three of 
these propositions will become thoroughly established. Apply what 
you have learned in this experiment to yourself. Do not expect 
to write up this experiment in one-half the time you will be able to 
do it in a month from now, nor to do it without many mistakes — mis- 
takes you will not make a month from now. Do the best you can in the 
time you have for preparing the lesson. 



LESSON 6— SOME FACTS CONCERNING THE LEARNING 

PROCESS AS OBTAINED FROM THE ALPHABET 

EXPERIMENT* 

A]} learning is dependent upon practice, upon performing what is to 
be learned. That is the way you originally learned to say the alpha- 
bet forwards and that is the only way you can learn to say it back- 
wards. 

In like manner you must yourself work out the assignments of the 
course. And to the extent that you do actually answer the questions, 
to just that extent you have a real grasp of the contents of the course. 

In order to afford you a check upon your work so that you may 
know how well you are doing it, the even numbered lessons (e. g., les- 
sons 6, 8, lo, etc.) will answer the problems raised in the odd-num- 
bered lessons (e. g., lessons 5, 7, 9, etc.). These answers are not com- 
plete answers ; no one knows enough today to answer absolutely com- 
|)letely. But they will furnish sufficiently complete answers for the 
purpose of the course. 

It goes without saying that you will secure little from the course if 
you obtain access to the even-numbered lessons before handing in 
your written reports upon the corresponding odd-numbered lessons. 

ANSWKRS TO QUESTIONS IN LESSON 5. 

How do your tufo learning curves differ? Explain why. 

1. The "saying alphabet forwards" curve drops very little, whereas 
the other curve drops a great deal. That is, there is very little im- 
provement in the first case and a great deal in the second. 

2. The curve in the first case is practically a straight line (disre- 
garding now the irregular fluctuations) while the curve in the second 
case shows a very great drop at first with less and less of a drop as the 
trials continue. 

3. The second curve is thruout "higher" than the first curve. 
Explanation. The learning curve of a performance that has not 

been practised, always shows a big drop after each trial, but as the 
trials continue, the curve drops less and less until it finally reaches a 
certain limit. In the case of saying the alphabet forwards we must 
realize that the early trials (with their resulting big drops) have oc- 



*CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE-UP 


READ 


6 
7 


Discuss, 5 
Experiment, 7 


Lesson 7 


Lesson 6 



28 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACH E;rS 

curred long ago. We are dealing possibly with trials looi to loio 
and can expect only very slight improvement from trial to trial. In 
fact we must be fairly near the limit of speed that can be obtained in 
this performance. 

The chief difference between the two curves is to be explained by the 
fact that the first curve is the only portion we have of a learning curve 
made up of, say, a thousand and ten repetitions, whereas the second 
curve is actually representative of the beginning of a learning process. 
The first curve must needs be nearly a straight line with only a slight 
drop, while the second curve must needs show large drops between 
each successive trial, but smaller and smaller drops as the repetitions 
continue. If we kept up the reciting of the alphabet backwards lo 
times a day for a month or more possibly we would then get a curve on 
the last day that would be similar to our first curve. 

From the shape of the curve we can then tell something as to the 
amount of training which has already preceded the first trial shown 
in the curve. 

In what respects do the tzvo curves agree? Explain. 

1. Both drop. Both show improvement in the work done. 
Explanation. A fundamental law of human behavior is the only 

explanation that can be given for the fact that both curves drop. Con- 
tinued repetition of a performance results in that performance be- 
coming easier and easier and when there is any effort made to decrease 
the time of doing it, the performance is done in less and less time. 

2. Both show fluctuations. Improvement is not always shown be- 
tween successive trials. Sometimes the performance is much inferior 
to that of several preceding trials. 

Explanation. The performance of any act is made up of many parts. 
Learning the whole performance (e. g., saying the alphabet back- 
wards) consists in learning to do each little part and in learning to 
do them in the correct order. Sometimes the parts are all fairly well 
done — then we make a better record than usual, — there is a sudden 
drop in the curve. Sometimes the parts are done poorly — then we make 
a poorer record than usual — there is an upward shoot to the curve. 
Most of the time we do some parts well and some poorly — then we 
make an average record. 

The causes as to why any part is done poorly or well will be taken 
up later. (Commence watching for them. Note why you fumble in 
tying your shoes, putting on your hat, shaving, spreading butter on a 
slice of bread, misspelling a word, answering a question incorrectly in 
an examination, etc.) 



i,e;sson 29 

In what respects do the situations and responses differ at the be- 
ginning and end of the two experiments f Explain zvhy. (This quesl- 
tion is inserted in addition to those asked in Lesson 5.) 

As to situation. 

1. Certain details were added to the situation. Certain details af- 
fected the Subject more and more, e. g., 

a. Certain combinations of letters are difficult (e. g., w. v. u. t.) 
and so are watched with more than ordinary' care. 

b. Letters said at first more or less one at a time, later become 
grouped, — groups thus take the place of single letters as the 

* items which affect the subject . 

c. "Idea you must go fast," "Idea you must not make mis- 
takes," etc. 

2. Certain details were eliminated more or less from the situation, 

€. g. — 

a. Strangeness of surroundings ceased to affect the Subject. 

b. Strangeness of requirement, — to recite alphabet in psychology 
class, — was forgotten. 

c; Presence of other individuals, their conversation, etc. became 
less noticeable. 

d. Presence of the Experimentor, the fact that he was watching, 
the fact that he was taking notes, the fact that he was timing, 
etc., had less effect. 

3. In other words, as learning progressed, the situation actually 
changed. Certain details affected the Subject more and more and cer- 
tain other details less and less. 

As to Response. 

1. Actual performance was done (a) more quickly, (b) with fewer 
mistakes, (c) more smoothly. 

2. Feelings of strangeness, un familiarity, nervousness, excitement, 
unpleasantness, etc., became changed more or less to feelings of famil- 
iarity, confidence and pleasantness, etc. 

3. Actual method of doing work was changed, particularly in say- 
ing alphabet backwards, e. g. — 

a. At first alphabet had to be recited forwards in order to say it 
backwards ; later this became imnecessary. 

b. It was recited in short pieces with pauses in between. 

c. Pauses became shorter, groupings of letters longer and longer, 

d. Etc. 

The process of learning involves then not simply doing work faster 
and faster with fewer and fewer mistakes, but also attention to differ- 
ent details in the situation coupled with qualitative changes in method. 



30 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

JVhy is it possible to recite the alphabet faster and with fezver mis- 
takes on the tenth trial than on the first trial f Has the situation 
changed f Has the response changed f Has th^re been any other 
change f 

The first part of this question has been answered under the second 
question, above. 

Has the situation changed? In one sense, No. There are the same 
factors outside the learner at the tenth trial that were there at the first 
trial. But in another sense, Yes. In some way or other the learner 
has changed, so that he is influenced less by certain of the outside fac- 
tors and more by other outside factors. Actually from the standpoint of 
the learner, then, the situation has changed, he is affected by details in 
a different way from what he was at the start. 

Has the response changed? Undoubtedly. This is shown by the de- 
crease in time and the increase in accuracy, also by the change in atti- 
tude toward the task. 

What other changes have there been? We shall come to see that the 
mechanism within the learner that is affected by outside factors and 
that controls the learner's muscles (for all behavior is composed of 
muscular movements) has been changed. This mechanism is the 
nervous system of the learner. It has in some way or other been 
changed by the repetition of the alphabet. 

We may think of this nervous mechanism as having been changed, 
on the one hand, so that now in this particular situation it is more 
susceptible to certain details and less susceptible to other details, and on 
the other hand, that it controls and directs the muscles engaged in speak- 
ing differently from what it did at the start. The learner is certainlv 
more susceptible to the difficulties of reciting *'w,v.u,t," than at the start. 
He is also less concerned with the presence of his partner than at the 
start, and undoubtedly does recite the alphabet backwards in a much 
better manner than at the start. His behavior is different. His re- 
sponse to the situation is different. 

It is clear from what has gone before that we shall need to add to our 
conceptions, "situation" and "response" a third conception — a coDcep- 
tion to cover the linkage of the situation to the response. The situation 
comprises those details that affect or stimulate the learner's sense-or- 
gans (eye, ear, skin, etc.) and the response comprises those morcments 
that make up the total behavior which results from the situatioo. Con- 
necting the stimulated sense-organ with the moving muscles are nerve- 
cells and nerve-fibres. For the present let us speak of this nervous 
connection as the "bond" or "connection." We may then look upon the 
learning of the alphabet as comprising a certain situation, a certiin re- 



LESSON 6 31 

sponse and a bond between the two. At the start this bond is very im- 
perfectly developed. As repetition continues, the bond is developed 
until finally the situation ( Experimentor says, "recite the alphabet 
backwards") is adequately bound to the various muscular movements 
which cause the letters of the alphabet to be sounded. 

Let us look upon the multiplication table in this same way. The 
teacher asks, "What is 6 times 8 ?" The child responds "48." The sit- 
uation, in terms of the child, is (i) the teacher, (2) the sounds making 
up "What is 6 times 8 ?" Certain muscles in the throat and mouth move 
and the child has said "48." Connecting the ear and the throat muscles 
are various nerve-centers and nerve-fibres. The stimulation in the ear 
has been communicated in a wonderful way over these nerve-pathways 
to the muscles in the throat and they have been moved — and "48" was 
said. The terms, "Situation," "Bond," and "Response," may be thought 
of now as covering this whole learned performance. 

Why do you suppose Carl in Lesson 3 could write the word "leaf" on 
the board after seeing his teacher write it and not before f What 
changed there — the situation, the response or some other third thing f 

If Carl has learned to write the word without knowing his letters, 
then the sight of the word and sound of the word have both become 
bound up with the movements of making the word. While Carl looked 
at the word and while he listened to the sound of the word, he wrote 
the word in the air, i. e., made the movements necessary to write the 
word. Diagrammatically, we have 

Sight of word -» Movements involved in writing word. 

Sound of word > Movements involved in writing word. 

Thru previous training in school and outside Carl had learned how to 
trace a drawing. Hence when he saw the word he was able to trace the 
word in the air. After a sufficient number of repetitions the bond con- 
necting this situation with this response becomes strong enough to 
function. But the possession of a bond between seeing the word "leaf" 
and writing it is not enough, else Carl could not write the word when 
his teacher pronounces it. While Carl was looking at the word he was 
also muttering it to himself. The teacher was also pronouncing it. 
Hearing the word then was part of the situation. And while hearing 
it he was also writing it in the air. Repetition of this detail of the sit- 
uation and the response shortly results in a bond being formed between 
hearing the word and writing it. 

To answer the question, we must reply that a bond was formed be- 
tween sight of the word "leaf" and the movements necessary to write 
it, also a bond between hearing the word and writing it. There has 
been a development of new bonds and consequently a new response. 



32 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY ?0R TEACHERS 

Before there was no bond and hence no writing response to the word 
"leaf." Afterwards there is a bond and so an appropriate response is 
possible. 

It should be borne in mind that the above analysis is not so full as it 
should be. And it should further be borne in mind that this analysis 
may be true of some children and not true of others. We do not know 
today just how all children come to do these things. Future details 
will be added as this course develops. 

SUMMARY OP POINTS COVERED SO FAR IN THIS COURSE 

1. Demonstration of sight spelling lesson. 

2. Understanding of the terms, "Situation," "Bond," and 
"Response." 

3. Realization that a situation is a complex affair made up of many 
details and a response is correspondingly complex. 

4. Method of plotting a learning curve. 

5. The fact that repetition of the same performance produces 
changes in the real situation, in the response, and in the bonds connect- 
ing situation with response. 

6. Some characteristics of learning curves. 

7. A method of writing up a laboratory exercise, involving the class- 
ification of your material under six headings : — 

a. The Problem, what you are trying to do. 

b. The Apparatus, what you have to work with. 

c. The Procedure, how you go at solving the problem. 

d. The Results, what information you discover. 

e. The Interpretation, what you decide the results mean. 

f. The Application, how the general principles outlined under 
"Interpretation" can be applied to other problems. 

LESSON 7— HOW DOES ONE IMPROVE AS ONE LEARNS TO 
DRAW IN THE MIRROR-DRAWING APPARATUS? 

In Lessons 5 and 6 we obtained some idea of the process by which 
one learns an alphabet. The same general principles will apply more 
or less to the learning of lists of things, such as conjugations, declen- 
sions, etc. 

Today we are interested in discovering the general characteristics of 
the learning process in such cases as learning to write with a pen, to ride 
a bicycle, to skate, to use a saw, etc. As adults are all able to write 
it is manifestly impossible to study with adult subjects the learning 
processes involved in handwriting. For that reason the experimeiit will 
be devoted to learning to draw while looking in a mirror. This process 



LESSON 7 



33 



involves many factors which are common to learning handwriting. En- 
deavor as best you can to understand this learning process as it will help 
you to understand what a child experiences while learning. 

As before, one partner will act as Experimentor (E) and the other as 
Subject (S). Here the emphasis will be upon completing the drawing 
of 17 stars in the mirror-drawing apparatus. This can only be done by 
prompt and efficient effort. 

the; mirror-drawing experiment. 

Problem: How does one improve as one learns to draw in the Mir- 
YQf -Drawing apparatus? 

Apparatus: Mirror-Drawing Outfit; 17 six-pointed star blanks,, 
watch. 

Procedure: 

(i.) The Experimentor determines how long it takes the Subject 
to trace the outline of the star, without using the mirror. Let him start 
at the point marked in the star and draw naturally around within the 
two lines. 

(2.) Experimentor arranges the apparatus so that Subject can 
not see his own hand directly, but only thru the mirror. Subject is to 
trace the outline of the star as quickly as possible with a lead peacil. 




Plate 11. Star blant for mirror-dravving experiment. 
(Actual size 4 l/4 x 5 inohes.) 



34 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

The requirement is that the pencil must stay on the paper, and must 
pass in order around the star. Measure the time required to pass 
around the star. Then record the number of times the pencil line 
touches either of the two printed lines. Each one should be counted a 
mistake. Furthermore, when the pencil is outside of the two printed 
lines, each change in direction should also be counted as one mistake. 

The star should be so placed that the starting point is towards S as 
he sees it in the mirror. If now each point is numbered from i to 12 
(12 being at the starting and ending point and i at the point to S's 
right as he sees it in the mirror), it will be found to make the matter 
of writing up the laboratory notes much easier, for all places on the 
star can thus be easily referred to. 

Be sure to write on each star-blank the number of the trial and the 
name of the Subject, also the time consumed in doing the drawing. 
Otherwise a gust of wind may mix up your papers and ruin your 
experiment. 

(3.) Have S trace 14 more stars in the mirror-drawing apparatus, 
making a total of 15 in all. Obtain the time for each trial. 

(4.) Have S trace another star as he did in (i) without the use 
of the mirror. 

This provides for the use of 17 star blanks; 2 are used without the 
mirror and 15 with the mirror. 

Results: E should have recorded then, (i) the time of each per- 
formance, and (2) the number of false moves to be observed by count- 
ing the number of times the lead pencil touches or crosses a printed 
line, and the changes in direction when without the printed line. 

The learning curves. Plot both the time-records and the accuracy- 
records. Provide on the base line space for 17 trials; on the vertical 
axis space for recording up to 300 seconds. (You can do this by let- 
ting each horizontal line represent 5 or 10 seconds.) Remember trials 
I and 17 were made without the mirror; trials 2 to 16, with the mirror. 
Do not connect trials i with 2 or 16 with 17. Connect trials 2 with 3 
with 4, etc., up to 16, using a solid line; and trial i with 17 using a 
dotted line. 

Next plot the accuracy-records. For the sake of convenience con- 
sider each error equivalent to a second in time and plot accordingly. 
Finally plot a third curve obtained by adding together the seconds taken 
to do the trials with the number of errors. This curve will represent 
the course of learning, taking into account both time and accuracy 
combined. 

Both partners will write up the report according to the outline given 
in Lesson 5. The Results will include the material (data) gathered 



Lesson 7 35 

together cluing the experiment and also the three learning curves. Un- 
der the heading "Interpretation" note answers to the following 
questions : 

1. What changes take place when the same performance is re- 
peated a number of times? Consider (a) speed, (b) accuracy, and (c) 
the two combined. 

2. What light do the data, secured when the mirror is not used, 
throw upon the main results of this experiment? In other words, how 
efficiently do you suppose the Subject could come to do the mirror- 
drawing after a great deal of practice? 

Do not fail to report under the heading "Applications" some con- 
crete examples of how the principles discovered in the experiment, can 
be applied to your own work. 



NOTES: (I) The word "data" is plural always. 

(2) As you are studying the learning process it is absolutely essontial that 
S shall not practice in any way whatever between trials, else your data will not be 
complete. If a trial is performed and the time- record is lost, report this fact. For 
example, if the time-record for the 12th trial was lost, call it nevertheless the i2th 
trial, and the next trial the 13th. In plotting, simply connect the 11 th and I3t1ii reesrds 
with a dotted line, to indicate that the 12th record is missing. 



LESSON 8— GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LEARN- 
ING PROCESS.* 

ANSWERS TO THE QUESTIONS IN LESSON 7. 

What changes take place when the same performanice is repeated a 
number of times? Consider (a) speedy (b) accuracy, and (c) the two 
combined. 

The first drawing with the right hand in the mirror was done very 
slowly and with many mistakes. The second drawing was very much 
better, there being a noticeable decrease both in the time consumed and 
the number of mistakes made. With each subsequent trial there was 
improvement (barring certain exceptions) until with the last trial we 
have a drawing made in very much less time and with few errors. In 
Plate III we have three learning curves showing 20 trials (not 15) and 
based on the average of 18 records from men and women. Both 
curves A (accuracy) and B (speed) show rapid improvement at the 
start with smaller and smaller gains as the practice continues. The com- 
bined curve (C) shows the same peculiarities. 

From studying curves B and C it is apparent that if these 18 indi- 
viduals had continued the practice for more than 20 trials they would 
have improved still more. Curve A, on the other hand, suggests that 
they had reached their limit in accuracy ; in fact, that they had reached 
this limit by about the 8th trial. (Trials 12 and 18 being actually the 
most accurate.) There is, however, another possible explanation. The 
instruction given the individuals whose average data we have before 
us, was purposely left indefinite as to whether speed or accuracy should 
be striven for. Their reports show, however, that most of them had in 
mind doing the task as quickly as possible, having in mind a fair de- 
gree of accuracy, rather than doing the task as accurately as pos- 
sible with a fair degree of speed. Consequently, the time curve shows 
the greater amount of improvement. It is extremely likely then that 
the accuracy shown in Curve A from the 8th to 20th trials represents 
to these individuals "a fair degree of accuracy," — that during those 
trials there was little or no attempt to improve their accuracy. If this 
be true, further practice would eventually bring each subject to a point 



•CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE-UP 


READ 


8 


Discuss, 7 




Lesson 8 


9 


Review, 1-8 




Lessons 1 - 9 


10 


Examination 




Lesson 1 • 


II 


Experiment, 1 1 


Lesson 1 1 





37 



38 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



where he would realize that his accuracy-record was not so good as it 
might be as compared with his time-record. His general attitude toward 
the work would change then so that he would strive for accuracy in a 
way that he had not done previously. Following this change in attitude 
there would undoubtedly appear a series of drops in the accuracy-curve 
with possibly little or no improvement in the time-curve. Judging then 
from what we can learn from the observations of our subjects, they 
have not reached their limit of improvement in accuracy, but rather 
only a temporary limit, this temporary limit being due to their attitude 
toward the work. 

rn 



i69 



M 



IM 



M 



Plat* III. Curres showing progrosa 
of l»amlBS t« drftw irim« looking 
in A uiTTor. 

Ourr* A rsoorda Arrors nftd* p«r 
trial. Oarr* B raooris tla* (in 
■voonAa) ooiwiuwA p«r trial. 
Cnrra raeords total orrora uiA 
aaooRda per trial. 




7nmH 



ivESSON 8 39 

Such temporary limits are called plateaus or level places in a learn- 
ing curve. In terms of what little we now know from this course about 
plateaus, we may define them as "temporary limits to improvement." 
In terms of our three terms, Situation, Bond, and Response, we may say 
that certain details in the situation are not affecting the learner as they 
should. Because they are not, there is little or no response to them and 
hence no improvement in the bonds connecting those details in the sit- 
uation with their appropriate details in the response. Later these de- 
tails commence to affect the learner, the bonds between those details and 
their responses commence to be used and improvement follows. At 
least this was apparently the case here. The little irregularities in the 
drawn line together with various memories which make up our notion 
of accuracy, all these were not affecting the learner so strongly as they 
might. As these details were being reacted to only a little or not at all 
there was little or no chance for the bonds to be developed. Later these 
same details would commence to affect the learner and then there 
would come improvement in accuracy. 

We shall then need to add to our previous conceptions of a learning 
curve — rapid improvement at first with less and less improvement as 
time goes on — this notion of a plateau. Improvement may cease en- 
tirely, certainly as far as objective proof is concerned, for a period of 
time and then commence again. (Later on in this course we shall go 
into this subject of plateaus and endeavor to ascertain in more detail 
the causes of their appearance.) 

The plateau may be looked upon as a peculiar kind of fluctuation or 
deviation from the true course of learning. It is a deviation which 
extends over a number of trials. The most common form of deviation 
is that which occurs very frequently in practically all learning curves 
and consists in sudden up or down deviations from the general trend 
of the curve. In Plate III, Curve A, we have such downward fluctua- 
tions at the 8th, I2th, 14th, etc., trials, and an upward fluctuation at 
the 7th trial. But these fluctuations are much less frequent and much 
less prominent in Plate III than they are in curves plotted from the data 
of just one individual. These fluctuations from trial to trial have al- 
ready been referred to in Lesson 6, where an explanation of their 
cause is given. 

iVhat light do the data secured when the mirror is not used throw 
upon the main result of this experiment? 

The data secured when the mirror is not used give us a clear idea of 
just how fast and accurately the subject can do the drawing without the 
mirror. The efficiency shown measures the strength of the old bonds 
formed in drawing, writing, etc., which function here. There is no 



40 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TE^ACHRRS 

reason to suppose that with sufficient practice the subject could not 
reach this efficiency under the new experimental condition. These 
data then give us some idea of the possible limit to the learning curve 
obtained in our twenty trials. But it is true that further practice with- 
out the mirror would lead one to draw the star in less time and more 
accurately. Consequently even this determination obtained without the 
mirror is not low enough for the final limit that might be reached by 
a vast amount of practice in the mirror. The final limit that an indi- 
vidual might reach with unlimited practice is called the physiological 
limit to the learning. It means that the physiological processes in- 
volved in the performance require a certain time and that when one 
reaches this limit one cannot progress further. It is extremely un- 
likely that the ordinary individual ever reaches his physiological limit 
in more than a very few simple processes which he has practiced vig- 
orously a great many times. In most things we are very far from the 
limit. 

The plateau, referred to above, may be thought of, then, as a tem- 
porary limit in distinction to the physiological limit which is the final 
permanent limit of progress. 

What applications can you make of the principles you have discovered 
to your own ivork? 

Knowledge as to how fast a child of a certain age could possibly add 
columns of figures (physiological limit) would be helpful in handling 
him, especially when his work shows that he is on a plateau. By this 
we do not mean that our ideal is to have a child even approximately 
attain his physiological limit. Far from it. But it would help keep us 
from fearing to overstrain the lx)y when what he needs is to be urged to 
do his best. 

Miss K. Anthony reports a case of an exceedingly bright boy who 
was but 9 years old but had been advanced to the 6th Grade. He 
stood at the head of his class in all matters of originality, initiative, and 
clear thinking but near the bottom in speed of handwriting, in draw- 
ing, and manual work. She believes his inability to do these latter per- 
formances as well as the average member of the class is due to his im- 
maturity. An II or 12 year old boy is physically stronger and more 
dexterous than a 9 year old boy, just because he is two or three years 
older. And this difference is great enough so that a 9 year old bright 
boy is seriously handicapped in competing with an average 12 year old. 
If Miss Anthony's conception is correct, i. e., that her 9 year oW boy 
is doing poor work in manual training just because he is too young, 
then there need be no worry about his poor performance. He is doing 
as well as can be expected of a 9 year old, altho it is not 6th Grade work. 



LESSON 8 41 

But if she is wrong and he does poor work because he is not interested 
or not gifted along these Hnes, then extra effort should be put forth to 
get him to do better. An exact knowledge of what different aged boys 
could do and what they naturally do do in manual training would help 
her here in determining how to handle him. 

Miss Mary L. McGahey found it impossible to improve Carl's arith- 
metic work as to speed. He was a 6th Grade pupil and did good work 
but did not solve simple arithmetical problems as fast as he should. The 
fact that Miss McGahey knew that his rate of work was much below 
what an average boy could do made her realize that Carl was on a 
plateau which was far from being his physiological limit. This made 
her realize that something was wrong and that it "was up to her" to 
find it. Finally she noticed that he tapped twice before commencing 
to solve the simple combinations as 

4874 

2,3,1,0, etc. On calling his attention to the matter 

and then reproving him every time he did tap, she quickly broke him 
of the habit. As a result he increased his rate of work by 50% in a few 
hours' time. If Miss McGahey had not known (i) what a child of 
Carl's age ought to do and (2) that he was making no progress, she 
would probably have never discovered the tapping and so never have 
trained him to do arithmetic problems at an efficient rate. (The tapping 
is undoubtedly a survival of an earlier habit of counting by making 
dashes on paper, instead of with one's fingers. Apparently Carl on fin- 

4 
ishing writing 6 as the answer of 2 had to tap twice before commencing 

8 

to think what 3 meant. Under such a method he had pretty nearly 

reached his physiological limit. When the tapping was eliminated then 

8 
he was able to think the answer 1 1 to 3 while writing the 6 and so could 

write continuously the answers to these problems, working out the an- 
swers ahead of where he was writing.)* 

♦Kate Anthony, Mary L. McGahey, Edward K. Strong, Jr. The Development of 
Proper Attitudes Toward School Work. School and Society, Dec. 25, 1915, II., 926-934. 



42 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR THiACHERS 

LESSON 9— GENERAL REVIEW 

Instead of laboratory work at the next class hour (9th Lesson), op- 
portunity will be furnished the members of the various sections to meet 
with their instructor and clear up any points so far covered which are 
not yet clear. 

REVIEW 

Behavior, we have come to see, can be broken up into three major 
conceptions : The Situation, (the sum total of all the elements afFecting 
the individual), the Response (the sum total of all the muscular move- 
ments resulting from the effect of the situation) and the Bond (the 
specific nerve connections between the sense-organs affected by the sit- 
uation and the muscles involved in the response). 

Learning consists in the formation of bonds (nerve connections) be- 
tween situations and the appropriate responses. 

The Lazvs of learning are the laws as to the formation of bonds. We 
have become familiar already with several of these laws. For example : 
there is rapid improvement at first with less and less improvement as 
practice continues ; improvement is never continuous — there are al- 
ways fluctuations in the curve of learning; under certain conditions 
plateaus develop — periods of no apparent improvement; and there is a 
limit to improvement (physiological limit) beyond which we can not 
go, but which is practically never reached due to lack of sufficiently 
strenuous practice. 

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEARNING. 

In the case of reciting the alphabet forwards an individual utilizes 
(i) already well developed bonds governing the pronunciation of the 
twenty-six letters, and (2) bonds governing the succession of individual 
bonds. To make this point clearer, suppose the Experiment had called 
for ten recitations of the Russian alphabet. In that case you would not 
have known the letters at all nor their pronunciation and moreover you 
would not have known their order of succession. In the experiment with 
the English alphabet, the command "recite alphabet" starts a long series 
of responses each of which is connected with the succeeding one by a 
bond, i. e., 

Situation Response 

1. "Recite alphabet" saying "a" 

2. ( I ) and saying "a" saying "b" 

3. (i), (2) and saying "b" saying "c" 
etc. 

As each letter is pronounced it becomes a part of the situation to 
which we react in pronouncing the next letter. The original situation 



LESSON 9 43 

"Recite Alphabet" also remains a part of the situation thruout. If it 
did not one would be likely to stop reciting or wander off onto other 
things. 

As an opposite extreme to this case, imagine an experiment in which 
you were called on to wiggle your ears. You would be unable to do it 
at first because you have no bonds at all between the situation ("wiggle 
your ears") and the response (contracting the muscles which move 
your ears.) Here the only way in the world you can learn to gain con- 
trol of this bond is by trying all sorts of movements in the hope that 
eventually you will hit upon the proper one, i. e., the moving of your 
ears. 

In the case of reciting the alphabet forwards, you make only appro- 
priate movements with slight mistakes from time to time (fluctuations) . 
In the case of wiggling your ears, you make inappropriate movements 
with occasionally the correct movement. This second type of learning 
is called "trial and error," as it is characterized primarily by many trials 
and many errors. 

We can classify different types of learning according to the follow- 
ing elements. 

1. Necessary Bonds exist. Order of succession of bonds 

known. 

2. Necessary Bonds exist. Order of succession not known. 

a. Order is calculated. 

b. Order is not calculated. 

3. Necessary Bonds do not exist. Order of succession, therefore. 

not known. 

a. Order is calculated. 

b. Order is not calculated. 
"Reciting the alphabet forwards'' is typical of type i. The specific 

elements all exist and their exact order of succession is also known. 
Further practice results in improvement in the performance, but the 
improvement is relatively slight. It is customary to think of such 
further practice as "driU" rather than "learning.'' So after the multipli- 
cation table is known, i. e., each element is known (situation '^6 times 
7," response "42") and the order of the groups is known, we call 
further practice "drill work" not learning. 

"Reciting the alphabet backwards" is typical of type 2a. We know the 
individual elements (saying the letters) but we do not know the order 
of succession (z, y, x. w, etc.) But we can silently recite the alphabet 
forwards until we come to "w, x, y, z," then hold these four letters in 
mind and recite "z, y, .x, w" ; then recite forwards again until we reach 
"s, t, u, V," then recite aloud "v, u, t, s," etc. Continued practice as we 
have seen, will shortly make unnecessary the forward recitations. In 



44 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHlERS 

this way the task of reciting the alphabet backwards is gradually trans- 
ferred from class 2a to class i. 

Solving the usual mechanical puzzle is typical of type 2b. Here we 
are able to make all the necessary movements but we do not know 
which ones to make; and the puzzle actually consists in discovering 
the necessary movements and their proper order. Before we have dis- 
covered this order we may have made all of the necessary movements 
many times but always in an incorrect order. 

The mirrpr-drawing is typical of type 3a. The necessary bonds do not 
exist, but we see immediately whether we are going in the right direc- 
tion — hence the order is in a sense given us. Looking in the mirror up- 
sets our usual set of bonds for the guidance of the hand in drawing. 
Usually when we wish to draw a line towards our body we make cer- 
tain movements ; now we find that these do not bring the hand, as we 
see it in the mirror, towards the body. We must make new movements. 
At first we do not know what to do. Gradually, however, out of the 
many movements performed by us, we make the correct movements 
more and more often. Eventually a bond is formed between "situation 
— follow between two printed lines towards our body as seen in the mir- 
ror" — and the response to actually move our hand away from the body. 
Gradually, then, after considerable practice the mirror-drawing task 
changes over from type 3a to i. 

Learning to wiggle one's ears, as has already been pointed out, is an 
example of the most extreme type of learning, for here we do not 
know what movements to make nor do we know from watching our own 
performance when we have really made the movement we have seen 
another boy make. For sometimes we move our ears but also our 
whole scalp or the side of our face. The latter element we do not want. 
Have we moved our scalp or the side of our face and only incidentally 
our ears, or have we actually moved our ears and shall we, with 
further practice in this way be able to eliminate the scalp or face move- 
ment? We have no way of telling. Consequently we keep trying and 
trying and finally accomplish our purpose, or in most cases, we give it 
up as a bad job. 

Learning the characteristics of the learning process, as yoti are 
doing in this course, can be made by any particular author to fit any 
one of these types of learning. He can supply you with every detail in 
one, two, three order and expect you to memorize the material and thru 
drill have you recite it as glibly as you do the alphabet. Or he can as- 
sign very indefinite problems and leave you to discover the elements 
and their order of relationship (type 3b). The former, however, vrill not 
result in your obtaining a workable use of the material : the later ^m\\ 



LESSON 9 45 

take too long and is too discouraging-, altho if you do learn this way you 
have a wonderful grasp of the subject. Consequently, the present 
attthor prefers to present the material in the experiments in the form of 
types 2 or 3, followed, as in this lesson, with a discussion of the material, 
so that missing bonds may be identified and learned and their relation- 
ships to one another comprehended and also learned. The material in 
this lesson is not given to be memorized; it is given as a guide, just 
as the printed lines in the mirror-drawing were a guide, so that you 
may have a better idea of where you are going and how the different 
parts of the course fit together. 

LESSON 10— EXAMINATION COVERING THE WORK OF THE 

COURSE SO FAR 

The lOth class-hour will be devoted to a general examination cover- 
ing the work of the whole course. 

ASSIGNMENT OF WORK TO BE HANDED IN AT THE IITH CLASS-HOUR. 

I. Spend one hour and a half in looking over one or more of the 
following standard textbooks in psychology and in writing about three 
hundred words concerning what you got out of this assignment. The 
assignment is mainly for the purpose of acquainting you with such text- 
books so that you may come to know where to turn when you want to 
look up a topic in psychology. The textbooks are : — 

J. R. Angell, Psychology, 1909. 

J. R. Angell. An Introduction to Psychology, 1918. 

B. B. Breese, Psychology, 1917. 

M, W. Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, 19 10. 

M. W. Calkins, Introduction to Psychology, 1902. 

S. S. Colvin and W. C. Bagley, Human Behavior, 1913. 

S. S. Colvin, The Learning Process, 1911. 

K. Dunlap, A System of Psychology, 1912. 

H. Ebbinghans, Psychology, trans, by M. Meyer, 1908. 

F. N. Freeman, Hozv Children Learn, 191 7. 
K. Gordon, Educational Psychology, 19 17. 
VVm. James, Psychology, Briefer Course, 1892. 
Wm. James, Psychology, 2 vols. 1890. 

C. H. Judd, Psychology, General Introduction, 1907. 

G. T. Ladd & R. S. Woodworth, Physiological Psychology, 1911. 
Max Meyer, Fundamental Laws of Human Behavior, 1911. 

W. B. Pillsbury, The Essentials of Psychology, 191 1. 

W. B. Pillsbury, The Fundamentals of Psychology, 1916. 

C. E. Seashore, Elementary Experiments in Psychology, 1908. 



46 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TiCACHlCRS 

E. L. Thorndike, Elements of Psychology, 1905. 

E. L. Thorndike, Educational Psychology, Briefer Course, 1914. 

E. L. Thorndike, Educational Psychology, 3 vol. 1913. 

E. B. Titchener, Outlines of Psychology, 1896. 

E. B. Titchener, Textbook of Psychology, 1912. 

E. B. Titchener, Beginners' Psychology, 191 5. 

J. B. Watson, Behavior, 1914. 

2. Read over the details listed below regarding the construction 01 
learning curves. They are not to be memorized, but should be fre- 
quently referred to until they have all been mastered. It will take some 
time before you will draw curves readily and correctly. In this scien- 
tific age no one can call himself educated who does not know how to 
use this method of expressing complex ideas. Once you have mastered 
the intricacies of this new "language" you will be astonished to find 
how often you make use of it. Place before you the model graph given 
in Plate I, Lesson i, and note how the rules given here are exem- 
plified in it. 

SOMie INFORMATION CONCERNING THE CONSTRUCTION OF LEARNING 

CURVES. 

1 . All learning curves are based on two columns of data. The first 

column indicates the successive trials or successive units of time in 

terms of which the progress of learning is measured. The second 

column gives the measurements of the learning. For example, the data 

on which Curve B in Plate I is based are as follows : — 

Number of Seconds Required to Recite 

Trials the Alphabet Backwards. 

1 46.0 

2 30.1 

3 284 

4 27.8 

5 25.1 

6 32.9 

7 21.0 

8 21.8 

9 21.2 

10 20.1 

11 20.2 

12 16.9 

13 18.2 

14 16.0 

15 15-3 

16 15-6 

17 136 

18 13-9 

19 15s 

20 12.5 

2. The trials are indicated along the horizontal axis and the "meas- 
urements of the learning" along the vertical axis. 



LESSON lO 



47 



3. Figures for the horizontal scale should always be placed at the 
bottom of the chart and the figures for the vertical scale at the left. 
Make clear what the scales mean. 

4. In the curves in the psychological field, the horizontal scale 
should read from left to right and the vertical scale from bottom to top. 

5. All lettering and all figures on a chart should be placed so as to 
be read from the base or from the right-hand edge of the chart. 

6. Points on the curve should be indicated with little crosses (x) 
and connected with a line that is heavier than the co-ordinate ruling so 
that the curves may be clearly distinguished from the background. 

7. Only in exceptional cases should the zero line of the scale be 
omitted. If it would require too much space to include the zero base 
line, the bottom should be a slightly wavy line indicating that the field 
has been broken off and does not reach to zero. This is shown in the 
accompanying graph, Plate IV. 

8. The title of a chart should be 
so complete and so clear that mis- 
interpretation will be impossible. In 
fact, the ideal is to write so defi- 
nitely that if a stranger picked up 
the chart he could understand what 
it meant.* 



*A good references on this subject for 
those interested in the subject is: W. C. 
Brinton, Graphic Methods for Presenting 
Facts. 




Plate IV. Model graph, showing 
how zero base line ahotild ha 
indicated when there is not 
space available to include 
base line* 



48 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOI.OGY 1?0R TEACHERS 

LESSON 11— THE RELATIONSHIP OF "METHOD," "ATTI- 
TUDE" AND "FEEUNG" TO LEARNING 

Some of the more obvious laws of learning have been presented. We 
are now ready to attempt a more careful study of less apparent factors. 

What happens when we change our method of doing a certain task — 
say of playing golf, of going from the sight to touch method in type- 
writing, or discovering a new way to solve originals in geometry ? Do 
our feelings affect our work ? We think they do : but do they really do 
so? Does the man that is confident do better than the man that is 
fearful? If so, why? 

MIRROR-DRAWING EXPERIME^NT (repeated) 

Problem.- What factors are involved in learning Mirror-Drawing^ 

Apparatus: Mirrow-Drawing OulJit; lo six-pointed star blanks; 
watch. 

Procedure : E should here be the S of the 7tli class-hour and S the 
E of that exercise. Follow the general procedure of the 7th class-hour, 
but here S should only draw with the right hand in the mirror. 

The emphasis is not upon completing 10 drawings hut upon obtaining 
as detailed an idea of how one learns as is possible. Consequently after 
each drawing, S should note down every fact that occurs to him regard- 
ing his method of doing the work, the ideas that came to him while 
doing the drawing, his attitude toward tlie work, his feelings, etc. E 
should also record changes in method which he notes in S, changes in 
feeling or attitude toward the work, etc. Note down, for example, every 
sigh or exclamation of impatience, and ascertain if there is any relation 
between its occurrence and success or failure. 

Results: E should have recorded, (i) the time of each performance. 
(2) the number of errors in each drawing, and (3) the observations of 
both S and E accompanying each performance. 

Draw three curves as in the 7th class-hour experiment. 

Questions: 

1. What changes take place when the same performance is re- 
peated a number of times? Consider (a) differences in method or 
'"mode of attack," (b) differences in attitude toward the work, (c) dif- 
ferences in feeling and emotion. 

2. How do such changes affect the changes in speed and accuracy ? 

3. How are improvements hit upon? Were they (a) accidental, 
(b) partly understood, or (c) thoroughly understood beforehand? 

Applications: What applications can you make of the laws you have 
discovered here to your work? 

Write up this experiment and hand it in at the next class-hour. 



LESSON 12— -RELATIONSHIP OF "METHOD," "ATTITUDE" 
AND "FEEUNG" TO "LEARNING"* 

(Continued) 

WHAT CHANGES TAKE PLACE WHEN THE SAME PERFORMANCE IS 
REPEATED A NUMBER OP TIMES. 

a. Differences in method or "mode of attack." There are a num- 
ber of different methods of doing the mirror-drawing. Most indi- 
viduals learn thru trying this thing and then that. Here and there is an 
individual who utilizes his knowledge of physics and figures out how his 
movements should be made. But in even these cases there is considerable 
of the "try this, try that" performance. Then again, most individuals 
direct the movement very largely by the eye. But occasionally an indi- 
vidual initiates each new movement in terms of the relationship of his 
pencil to his little finger. If he desires to move toward his little finger 
(determined thru vision) he then moves his forefinger and thumb 
toward his little finger — the guidance being in terms of finger-move- 
ments not in terms of vision. The eye is used in this case simply to 
record the general direction desired and to guide the pencil between 
the two red lines. 

As practice continues the individual may steadily improve on the de- 
tails of his procedure or he may from time to time try other methods. 
In the latter case he may return to his first method or he may abandon 
it entirely. There is no general rule to be laid down as to the course of 
these changes. Each individual should, however, endeavor to ascertain 
as accurately as he may just what changes did take place m his own 
case. 

b. Differences in attitude toward the zvork. Ruger** calls attention 
to three different general attitudes toward one's work. He calls them 
( i) the self-attentive attitude, (2) the suggestible attitude, and (3) the 
problem attitude. 

The self-attentive attitude is illustrated by him by this extract from 
a man's account of how he solved a puzzle. "It seemed to me that if 
anybody had given it to me without saying that it was a puzzle (a bona 
fide one) I would have said it was impossible up to the last minute. I 
have a feeling now of loss of esteem. I had this all along because I 
couldn*t do something which was made for people with ordinary brains 

**H. A. Ruger, The Psychology of Efficiency. 1910, pp. 36-39. 



* CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE UP 


READ 


12 
13 


Discuss, 1 1 
Experiment, 1 3 


Lesson 13 


Lesson 1 2 



49 



50 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

to do. One conclusion that kept running through my mind all the 
time was that I had a subordinate mind. I couldn't help having a glee- 
ful, self-satisfied feeling when it actually seemed to be coming off, altho 
it was a surprise." 

Individuals possessed with this self-attentive attitude expressed them- 
selves as being afraid that the experimenter was getting bored because 
they were slow, or that he would think them extremely stupid, etc. The 
principal thing, then, that occupied the minds of people with this atti- 
tude was the concern as to their general fitness and as to what others 
would think of them. 

The suggestible attitude. Ruger says, "In two of the men there seemed 
to be a special sensitiveness toward any movements of the operator 
which might give an indication as to the course to be pursued. In such 
cases as this there is a lack of confidence in the self but the attention is 
directed not to the self but to some other person. The center of gravity, 
if one may so describe it, of the responsibility is located elsewhere and 
the suggestions, intentional or unintentional, of the other person or per- 
sons concerned are accepted uncritically. This tendency was noted by 
the writer in his own case in novel situations of a more distinctly social 
type, such as business transactions of an unaccustomed sort, or other 
similar cases where persons instead of things were to be dealt with and 
where the other person was felt to have superior information as to the 
matter in hand and the self to be deficient." 

Probably all have experienced this attitude when attempting to do 
something new while in the presence of others. This is particularly 
true when those present are known to know more about the task than 
one's self. Their presence bothers us ; very often we make mistakes 
that we know we would not make if we had been alone. Here our at- 
tention is directed even more toward those who are present than to 
the work before us. And at such times we are especially susceptible 
to any indications from these persons as to whether we are doing' 
well or poorly. 

The Problem Attitude. "In contradistinction to these two attitudes, 
which are certainly not favorable to efficiency," this third attitude is 
essentially an attitude of self-confidence. "The self-confidence is not 
one of sluggish complacency, however, but is expressed in a high level 
of intellectual activity, of attention. Attention would be directed to the 
thing to be done rather than to appraisal of the self." 

In this particular experiment undoubtedly most subjects had some- 
what of the self-attentive attitude, or the suggestible attitude, or both 
to start with. And as practice continued the earlier attitude faded out 



LESSON 12 51 

more and more and the problem attitude took its place. Occasionally a 
subject displays only the problem attitude thruout the practice period. 
And occasionally also a subject continues to show the self-attentive 
attitude thruout, but this is rather rare. Usually there is a noticeable 
change toward the adoption of the problem attitude. 

Some of the factors that bring about this change in attitude are the 
realization that one is improving, that one can do the task, that another 
is doing it successfully, etc. But sometimes the latter factor reacts in 
just the opposite way. Later on in this course, we shall return to this 
subject of attitude towards one's work, and endeavor to discover the 
causes of these attitudes and the ways in which the third attitude may be 
substituted for the first two. In the meantime accumulate what infor- 
mation you can on the subject, as it is undoubtedly one of the biggest 
problems a real teacher has to face — the problem of making boys and 
girls and men and women really self-confident about their work. 

c. Differences in feeling. As we shall come to learn later on, feel- 
ing is technically either pleasant or unpleasant. Besides these two 
aspects of feeling there are the emotions of fear, hate, love, anger, etc. 
It is not likely that a real emotion is aroused in this experiment, except 
that of anger, and only then in the case of a few individuals. 

During the first few trials the work did not go smoothly. One real- 
ized that he took altogether too much time in doing the drawing and 
that there were too many mistakes. Continued failure to accomplish 
what is desired always is accompanied by an unpleasant feeling. If 
this is continued too long anger will arise. But as the practice pro- 
gressed, the work became easier, fewer mistakes were made, and the 
whole drawing took less time. With each improvement there cam.e 
less and less of unpleasantness and more and more of pleasantness. So 
after a time the original feeling of unpleasantness changed over to 
pleasantness. Then one was really interested in the task. 

As practice is continued, however, the improvement becomes less and 
less (refer again to Plates I and III. The novelty of the task dis- 
appears, and thoughts come to mind of more interesting or of more 
valuable performances that one might be doing if it weren't for this re- 
quired task. The inability to carry out these performances because 
of the mirror-drawing may then bring again into consciousness unpleas- 
ant feelings. Whether one does then change from a pleasant to an un- 
pleasant feeling-attitude toward the task at the close of the experiment 
will depend on the interplay of the pleasantness associated with the con- 
tinued improvement versus the unpleasantness due to physical fatigur, 
inability to do other things, etc. 



52 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY P'OR TEACHERS 

Even if one does thus swing from unpleasantness to pleasantness, and 
then back to unpleasantness again, one is very apt to discover that the 
last two or three trials bring pleasantness again to mind. Especially 
is this true of the last trial. 

(Are these changes in feeling typical of all learning? If so, to what 
extent should a teacher pay attention to them as shown in his students ? 
How might the second change from pleasantness to unpleasantness be 
avoided? If these changes are not typical '^f all learning, how do they 
differ here from other examples of learning?) 

HOW DO CHANGES IN METHOD, ATTITUDE OR FEEEING AEFECT THE 
CHANGES IN SPEED AND ACCURACY? 

It is pretty clear that the changes in speed and accuracy produce very 
profound changes in method, attitude, and feeling. It is a fair question 
to ask, on the other hand, if the latter changes affect speed and accuracy. 
If they do not, it is immaterial whether the learner has a self -attentive 
attitude or a problem attitude, whether he is in a pleasant or unpleasant 
mood. 

Changes in method do profoundly affect speed and accuracy. Even 
such slight changes as from clutching the pencil as if life depended on it 
to holding it naturally, result in less fatigue and consequently in 
smoother lines and less unpleasantness. When careful notes are kept 
it is often very easy to see that with a change in method there has come 
decided changes in speed or accuracy. In fact from a study of the time- 
curve and the accuracy-curve one may often be able to check up the 
introspections (an introspection is technically an observation of one's 
own mental processes) of the subject as to just when he commenced to 
emphasize one of these elements more and the other less. 

From our analysis of the three attitudes one may have toward his 
work, it is clear that one is reacting in the first two cases not only to 
the details of the mirror-drawing itself but to other details which have 
nothing to do with the task in hand — details such as one's feelings, one'< 
estimate of himself, the movements of the experimenter, etc. As one 
can only be affected by a certain number of details, the elimination of 
these useless details may make it possible for another detail in the mir- 
ror-drawing task to affect one. If this new detail is the one that must 
be reacted to before further progress may be made, then the change 
in attitude may bring about an improvement not otherwise possible. 
This is just what we all have noticed many times. Worry, excitement, 
thoughts of ourselves and others prevent the really important details 
for the solution of our work from coming into play. The problem at- 
titude represents then that attitude under which we are less affected 
by unimportant details. The other two attitudes represent conditions 



LESSON 12 jjg 

of work when certain unimportant details are being reacted to and 
necessarily other important attitudes are not being reacted to. 

HOW ARE IMPROVEMENTS HIT UPON? WERE THEY (a) ACCIDENTAL, 
(b) partly UNDERSTOOD, OR (c) THOROUGHLY UNDERSTOOD^ 

Observations from different individuals vary greatly upon this sub- 
ject. One individual may proceed very slowly and observe very care- 
fully what is to be done and just what he is doing and slowly develop 
the proper method for doing the experiment. In his case there will be a 
noticeable number of "planned out" movements. Another individual 
may make no "planned" movements at all, at least as far as he is able 
to report the matter. All that such an individual is aware of is that he 
kept trying first one way, then another in apparently a very aimless sort 
of way and that as time went on he came to realize that he was doii^ 
better and better. Moreover, from time to time he also came to realize 
that he was doing this particular part of the work in this particular 
sort of a way. For example, that when from the mirror it seemed 
as tho he should move his hand away Irom his body he then moved his 
hand toward his body. But the significant part of this discovery Kes in 
the fact that he was already more or less successfully making this move- 
ment toward his body when it looked as tho he should more the hand 
away from him before he was conscious of the matter. That is, the 
improvement was hit upon apparently accidentally and later it became 
understood. (Later on in this course we shall come to see that the im- 
provement was not hit upon accidentally, but was the true resultant of 
what had gone before, but for the present we may think of it as 
accidental.) 

The types of learning illustrated by these two individuals appear at 
first hand to be very different. The first individual plans out his work, 
the second hits upon it "accidentally." In one sense they are very dif- 
ferent. The former represents the highest type of human learning, 
whereas the latter represents the lowest type — a type common to both 
human beings and to animals. But when these two are carefully studied 
we discover that they only differ in degree, not in kind. Altho it is 
true that the first individual "planned" out some of his methods and 
movements, yet he did not plan out all of them. Many of them, usually 
the great majority of them, he first unconscionsly learned how to do and 
then later discovered that he was doing them. We shall want to char- 
acterize the learning of these two typical individuals by saying that the 
second unconsciously learned nearly or entirely all that he did and 
later became aware of part of what he was doing, whereas the first con- 
sciously planned out a few of his movements before starting to do them 
while learning the rest in the same way that the second indiyidual ac- 
quired his. 



54 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Learning to do a task similar to mirror-drawing is largely character- 
ized by the unconscious development of movements which, after they 
have become fairly well established, are likely to become consciously 
noticed. Such learning has been called "trial and error" learning. The 
expression is not a good one, but it has been widely used by writers 
on this subject. The essential characteristic of this sort of learning is 
that we do not have at hand a suitable movement (response) to the 
situation. In terms of situation, bond and response, there is no bond 
existing between the situation confronting the learner and the correct 
response. For example, at point 3 on the star-blank one must proceed 
towards 4 (situation). To do so one must make certain movements 
(response.) In order to do so the situation and the response must be 
connected by a bond. Such bonds cannot be formed voluntarily. The 
only way open is to try one movement after another until the right 
movement is hit upon. Every time an improper movement is tried it is 
checked immediately since it leads the pencil in a wrong direction. On 
the other hand, every time the correct movement is tried it is not 
checked but allowed to continue. In this way eventually the situation is 
tied up with the correct response, inasmuch as the bond connecting the 
two has been used more than any other. The selection of this correct 
movement is not consciously done. It becomes consciously known only 
after it is fairly well developed. 

This type of learning might be illustrated roughly in this way. Sup- 
pose P and Q, who, blindfolded, are standing in the middle of a 
recently harrowed field or one covered with snow. P determines just to 
which part of the field he wants Q to go but he doesn't tell him. Q is 
to discover this point by keeping walking, agreeing to change his direc- 
tion whenever P calls out "change" and to keep going when P says 
nothing. Now when O starts he is as likely to go one way as another. 
The consequence is that he will start a number of times and because 
they are wrong P will so signal and Q will stop and start again. The 
snow about the starting point will become all trampled because of these 
starts and stops. But presently Q will hit upon the correct direction, P 
will no longer signal to stop and Q will continue in the desired direction. 
If he walks in a straight line he will presently reach the desired point. 
If he doesn't P will signal to change and Q will then make a few stops 
and starts, finally hitting on the correct direction again. In this way Q 
will finally reach the desired point. He has reached it thru starting 
many incorrect movements which were immediately checked and then 
continuing the correct movement whenever hit upon. Now suppose P 
and Q start over again. The process will be largely the same as before. 



LESSON 12 55 

But as it will be easier walking wherever Q has traveled before, Q 
will be much more likely to continue in old paths than to make new ones. 
And as the correct direction is the only one that continues for any dis- 
tance Q will be aided by it much more than by the little short paths 
that lead in the wrong direction. Still on the second trial Q's guidance 
will come essentially from P's signals. As P and Q keep up this stunt, 
the correct path will become better and better formed and Q will gradu- 
ually come to rely on it more and more and to need P's signals less and 
less. After a certain number of trials it is likely that Q could traverse 
the distance with no mistakes, utilizing the well-worn pathway as a 
guide instead of the sigfnals of P. 

All learning consists in forming a new situation-bond-response 
combination. In forming such a new combination we must start with 
some already formed combinations as a starting point. In the case of 
drawing line 1-2 in the mirror we start with the combination of situa- 
tion (direction toward one) and response (movement of hand toward 
body), indicated in the diagram by Si and Ri. But the response Ri is 
incorrect. Many other movements (R2-R8) are attempted. Each is 
checked immediately. Finally movement R9 (which is to move hand 
away from body) is commenced ; it is not checked, and so is continued 
until 2 is reached. The old customary habit, situation (direction toward 
one) response (movement of hand toward body) has thus been modi- 
fied so that we now have the new habit, i. e., situation (direction toward 
one) response (movement of hand away from body). R9 has been 
substituted for Ri as the response to Si. After a number of stars have 
been drawn this new habit will then commence to function efficiently 
It will do so because the bond connecting Si and R9 has reached a cer- 
tain degree of strength. 




Now the reason we "hit upon" the proper movements "accidentally" 
and later become conscious of them is apparently that until a bond has 
reached a certain degree of strength we are not capable of being 
aware of it. When it finally has reached this degree of strength thru 
use, we then suddenly realize just what we are doing. In terms of the 



56 - INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY I^OR TEACHERS 

saow field scene Q will not at first notice that he follows kis jformer 
footeteps in preference to walking thru unbroken snow. After a time, 
however, the difference in ease of walking along a path as compared 
with walking thru the snow is forced upon him. After that ke is as 
mtMk influenced by this detail of the situation as by P's signals. And in 
the mirror-drawing experiment the subject at first doesn't know how 
he jets from point i to 2, After a time, however, he realizes that to 
go to 2 from I you move in the opposite direction from what yoa want 
to, 9T he may not reach such a generalization but tell you that be dis- 
regards what he sees and allows his fingers to guide the movement. In 
the first case he has clearly in mind what he is doing. In the latter he 
is more in the stage of Q when he his just commenced to pay attention 
to tfie feeling of path versus no path without thinking particularly 
about the meaning of this diflference. 

Let us return now to the original question : — "How are improve- 
ments hit upon? Were they (a) accidental, (b) partly understood, or 
(c) thoroughly understood?" Fundamentally we have in such a type of 
problem as this mirror-drawing experiment a case where an old situa- 
tron-bond-response combination is modified so as to give us a new re- 
sponse to the same situation. Whenever the response is changed there 
results movements more or less of the "trial and error" type, i. e., the 
starting of many incorrect movements which are immediately checked 
and the final development of the correct movement thru its being al- 
lowed to continue. In all such cases the correct movement will be "hit 
upon" just as "accidentally" as are any of the incorrect movements. Its 
first use is "accidental," Its second, third, fourth, etc., uses are also acci- 
dental. But eventually the bond connecting the situation and the new 
response reaches a certain degree of strength and the process becomes 
a conscious one. The normal thing is for improvements to be hit upon 
first and later to become consciously known. 

But there are cases where we do consciously plan out the movement 
before we commence making any movements at all. These are casee 
which we shall study more intensively later under the heading of trans- 
fer pf training. It is sufficient now to say that in these cases the sub- 
ject has experienced somewhere else in life some situation similar to 
the one now confronting him and that he now makes use of some of 
that experience in this case. For example, a subject who has previously 
studied physics may have learned the principle that vertical lines are 
inverted as they appear in a mirror but not horizontal lines. This 
fjrinciple may have been connected up as a response to the situation 
"mirror." Now when confronted with the mirror in this experiment, 
the mirror detail of the whole situation in the experiment calls to mind 



LESSON 12 57 

the physical law. The law then becomes an added detail to this sub- 
ject's entire situation. He acts in terms not only of the situation as 
other subjects perceive it but also in terms of this detail — the physical 
law. And acting in terms of the law he has little or no trouble with the 
vertical and horizontal lines in the experiment. This statement must 
be modified somewhat, however. It is true he will have less trouble 
than the average individual if he has in mind the physical law. But he 
will have still considerable trouble, unless in his physics course or some- 
where else he has actually drawn objects as seen in a mirror. When 
one must make a new movement in response to a situation one can only 
learn to make it by doing it and this doing involves "trial and error." 
If he has not had this experience, he will profit by knowing the law be- 
cause he will much more quickly check the wrong movements since he 
will have a guide in not only what is seen but also in what is felt in the 
hands. Knowing that he must move his hands away from him in going 
from I to 2, he will feel in his hands that he is going wrong as soon 
as he moves in any other way. 

references: on the mirror-drawing experiment 

D. Starch, A Demonstration of the Trial and Error Method in Learn- 
ing. Psydiol. Bull, Jan. 1910, 20-23. 

G. M. Whipple, Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, 191 5, Vol. II, 
485-499. 

ON THE LEARNING PROCESS 

Bryan and Harter, Studies in the Physiology and Psychology of the 
Telegraphic Language. Psychol. Rev. 1897 and 1899, IV. 27-35 ^"^ VI. 

345-375- 

W. F. Book, The Psychology of Skill, 1908. 

H. A. Ruger, The Psychology of Efficiency, Archives of Psychology, 
No. 15, 1910. Note especially pp. 36-39. 

Ladd & Woodworth, Physiological Psychology, 1911, Part II, 
Chapter VHI. 

LESSON 13— HOW DOES ONE LEARN A SPANISH-ENGLISH 

VOCABULARY? 

Is the learning of a vocabulary an entirely different performance from 
the learning of handwriting? Or are there certain parts of each that 
are more or less similar? What are the processes involved in memor- 
izing a vocabulary? Is there a one "best" method for all individuals 
or are there different methods which are best adapted to different in- 
dividuals ? 

In this experiment E will pronounce a Spanish word and S will be 
expected to give the English equivalent. If he can't E will prompt 



58 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACH I$RS 

him and a little later try him again. As the promptings continue S will 
gradually learn the vocabulary. Devote your time and ingenuity in 
this experiment to discovering how S learns the pairs of words. In 
some cases S will frankly not know, in other cases he will say the sound 
suggested the English word, in other cases he will have other answers. 
Endeavor to discover as accurately as possible just how S learned 
each pair, 

A few students, particularly men, take an inordinate amount of time 
to learn their vocabulary. Yet if there were a thousand dollars at 
stake they could do the task in a few minutes. Do not allow a wrong 
attitude to interfere with your work. Get it done quickly. 

THE EXPERIMENT 

Problem : How does one learn a Spanish-English vocabulary f 

Apparatus. E receives from the instructor a list of 25 Spanish-Eng- 
lish words, which S is to commit to memory. (If S knows Spanish E 
should report this fact to the instructor and secure a vocabulary in 
some other language.) 

Procedure, (i) E prepares a tally sheet similar to the model 
(Plate V) and fills in the list of Spanish and English words to be 
learned. 

(2) E supplies S with a list of the Spanish words (but not the 
English words) which S will keep before him as his prompting list. 

(3) Trial i. E will read aloud to S the Spanish words and their 
English equivalents at the approximate rate of one pair every three 
seconds. S will follow with his eyes the Spanish words on his list 
during the reading and will endeavor to memorize the pairs as they 
are read. He will not write down the English words. 

This first trial has, of course, 25 promptings since E read to S each 
Spanish word and its English equivalent. Accordingly record an "x" in 
column one of the tally sheet opposite each of the 25 pairs of words. 

(4) Trial 2. S pronounces the first Spanish word on his list and 
attempts to give its English equivalent, (a) If he succeeds, then stop 
until you have written down S's explanation of how he came to connect 
the Spanish and English words together. Record these observations in 
detail because they are the results you are especially interested in ob- 
taining in this experiment. When this is done S pronounces the sec- 
ond Spanish word and attempts to give its English equivalent. Etc. 

(b) If S gives an incorrect English word, write that word in column 
2 opposite the appropriate Spanish word. Prompt S as to what the 
correct English word is. Then have S pronounce the second Spanish 
word and attempt to give its English equivalent. Etc. 



LESSON 13 



59 



List in*.ff*m>H lii*1 *u tnji'»t 


T«Aa 0<f*« '•> f4< *fft»fTi*tl 


W*rdi ti rt«» «|4ir<l«i>» I'l 


C*tif%H» Ml* ^fmf*ik^» it<*4t.4 


Mla<«t M(>««laif1 


««< «rr»r4 m«4( «if « J^ /«r« 




/r i 


^^ r*uCM/<f . . Tn'^/ai^ 






/ 


' 1 
^ 


^ 


r 


i" 


fr 


7 


^ i 


•9 


lU 


1 




> 






















Z 




»» 






















3 




» 






















y 




• 






















^^<. 


























u 




f 






















xy 




> 






















2*- 




J» 






















T« ♦«<<!<•« fee 


'i f'-^/'t'/sii- 


k 




-J 



















Piaite v. Showing blank to be used by- E for 
raaording pron?>tings and mistakes. (The 
blank should be ©§ inches wide, allowing 
"1-|- inches for each of the forst two coltirana 
and ■§• inoh for the next eleven colrunna.) 

(c) If S makes no reply within 5 seconds after pronouncing the 
Spanish word, mark an "x" in column 2 opposite the appropriate 
Spanish word and then prompt S as to the correct English word. S 
pronounces the second Spanish word and so continues. 

Repeat the above procedure with each Spanish word in the list. In 
•this way you ascertain whether S has learned the English equivalent 
for any of the Spanish words after one prompting (your first read- 
ing) , and if so, how he learned it. And furthermore, you have a record 
of (a) How many English equivalents were given correctly; (b) How 
many were given incorrectly; (c) In how many cases no reply was 
made. 

(5) Trial 3. Repeat the above procedure for trial 3. Continue with 
trial after trial until S can give correctly the English equivalent to 
each of the 25 Spanish words without error and without waiting more 
than 5 seconds in any case. 

(6) If you still have time try this additional experiment. After S 
has recited the Spanish-English pairs correctly, have him start at the 
bottom of the list and call out the English equivalents as before, reading 
up the list instead of down. Continue until S can recite the list cor- 
rectly. What additional light does this experiment throw on the whole 
problem of learning a vocabulary? 

Results, (i) Count up the number of promptings (the number of 
"x's" plus the number of English words which were incorrectly given 



60 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOI.OGY FOR TEACHES 

in each column) and record the totals at the bottom of each column, as 
has been done in the model blank. Plot a prompting-curve. 

(2) Record all the facts you have marshalled as to how one learns 
a vocabulary. 

Interpretation. Answer the following questions and give any other 
conclusions of interest here. 

(i) How does the learning curve based on promptings compare 
with the learning curves obtained in learning the alphabet and mirror- 
drawing? 

(2) In what different ways did S learn the Spanish- English pairs 
of words? What seem to be the general laws underlying such learn- 
ing? Are these laws similar to or different from those related to 
learning mirror-drawing? 

AppUcatuM. How might these methods be cultivated? Where else 
could the same methods be utilized ? 

Hand in your write-up of this experiment at the next class-hour. 



LESSON 14— THE LEARNING PROCESS INVOLVED IN COM- 
MITTING TO MEMORY A VOCABULARY* 

A foreign word may become associated with an English word in two 
different ways. It may be learned thru simple repetition, or it may be 
learned thru the intermediation of one or more steps. Take the case 
of the German word "hund" and its English equivalent "dog." Some 
individuals will come to know that "hund" means "dog" by simple 
repetition of the two words together. Other individuals, when con- 
fronted with "hund," will think "hound" and then "dog". When the 
intermediate step is employed the combination "hund-dog" may be 
learned with one repetition and may then function satisfactorily thru- 
out life. When the purely repetitive method is employed the combina- 
tion may only be learned after a number of repetitions and even then 
may not function a few days later. 

Consider a second illustration. The Chinese symbol ^ stands for 
"a well of water." If one were engaged in committing a Chinese-Eng- 
lish vocabulary, particularly at the commencement of the course in 
Chinese, it is most likely that the combination would be learned ac- 
cording to the first method indicated above — thru sheer repetition of 
the two together. However, if one was instructed by his teacher, that 
the symbol # was derived originally from and that the four 

outside lines had been gradually dropped, |" f ] 1 and also that the 
original symbol stood pictorially for a 
about a common well, 
that one would need but 



of houses D n D 
likely D O D 
(this one ana 

"#— well."** 



this 



small c 1 u s t e r 

then it is quite 

simple instruction 



repetition) in order to retain for life the combination 



••The above explanation of the symbols is not technically correct but it is the con- 
ception that Miss Annie E. Bradshaw used in learning the symbol. The correct explana- 
tion is recorded here as given by Mr. C. W. Luh. it is of interest in this connection, as it 
shows how thru associations a term obtains new n\eanings. This word, "well," is de- 
rived from an ancient hyerograph. TTie square in the middle represents the mouth of 
the square rail of the well. Around it are walls slanting towards the ground. The resem- 



♦CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE UP 


READ 


14 

15 


Discuss, Lesson 13 
Experiment, Les. 1 5 


Lesson 1 5 


Lesson 1 4 



6i 



62 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

LEARNING THRU SHEER REPETITION (Rote Memory) 
Consider the fundamental process involved in learning "hund-dog' 
thru sheer repetition. We start with the abilities: — 

(i) to pronounce "hund" when we see the printed word "hund," 

(2) to pronounce "dog" when we see the printed word "dog," 

(3) to call to mind a considerable number of words after seeing 
the word "dog," such as, "Toby," "animal," "four-legs," "white," 
"black," "yellow," "cur," etc. All of these latter combinations 
have been developed thru experience and go to make up as a 
complex whole our complex thought "dog." It is quite likely when 
we see the word "dog" and say "dog," that there is a more or less 
simultaneous commencement of the processes to say many or all of 
the others also. 

Such abilities do not impress us as adults. But if we stop to think 
a moment we realize that small children can not do these seemingly 
simple things ; hence, we must have learned them at some time. 

It may be that we have never pronounced "hund" after seeing the 
word. But we are able to do so because of the existence of still simpler 
abilities which we possess, namely: — 

(i) to pronounce "h" when we see the letter "h," 

(2) to pronounce "und" when we see the letters "und," 

(3) to connect up the two sounds into one word, i. e., "hund." 
The more we fall back upon these simpler abilities when attempting to 
pronounce "hund" the first time the more slowly and with the more 
hesitancy will we pronounce the word, coupled with an increase in 
speed and confidence with successive trials. That this point may be 
better appreciated, watch yourself master the pronunciation of the fol- 
lowing words : "handworterbuch," equilibrating," "concaturating." 
(This type of learning is similar to learning the alphabet backwards, 
type 2a of Lesson 9.) 

Having disposed of the problem of pronouncing "hund" when we see 
the printed word "hund," let us restate what we have to start with 
in the form of a diagram. 

blance is more remarkable when we write the word in an older style, like 

The "weri system." During the Dynasty of West Chau (1122-769 B. C.) 

the land tax was paid in community labor. Each square (about % sq. mi.) 

was divided into nine allotments, like . TTie middle square was 



public land, the products of which sup 
emment. Eight families were assigned, 
it, and they worked on it as they did- 
arrangement of the farms, with theirl 
looks just like the word#. So we have 




ported the central gov- ji^-*^' 

to the farmsteads around ' i S 

their own farms. The ^ '^ 
fences and pathways 
come to call it the "well system." 



"For a time, it was a very effective method, and the management •( 

these farms became a byword for order _ and cleanliness. So the word # 

became an adjective. In rhetoric we double it(##) and this means 'very 
orderly.' " 




LESSON 14 63 

SITUATION RESPONSE 

(i) seeing "hund" > pronouncing "hund" 

(2) " "dog" > " "dog" 

(3) " "^" ^ thinking "Toby" 

(4) " "dog" > " "animal" 

etc. 
The problem is to connect the situation (seeing word "hund") with the 
existing responses to "seeing dog," i. e., to connect with the first situa- 
tion in the above table the responses to the second, third, fourth, etc., 
situations. In terms of a diagram the problem is to develop the dotted 
line below : — 
SITUATION RESPONSE SECONDARY RESPONSE 

seeing "hund"'-:;;-^ ^pronouncing "hund" ^^ 

seeing "dog ' — " ' ' ^> pronouncing "dog'^-^--— » thinking Toby 

thinking "animal" 
thinking "cur" 
'etc. 

It is apparent from our experience in the experiment of Lesson 13 
that a new connection or bond, such as indicated by the dotted line 
above, can be developed by mere repetition. Expressed in a more 
general way we have : — 

Situation i -c-;;; > Response I 

Situation 2 ''--•> Response 2 

with the generalization that repetition of Si — Ri and 5*2 — R2 results 
in the formation of a new bond Si — R2. 

One of the classical experiments illustrating this law was per- 
formed by the Russian psychologist, Pavlov. He rigged up an appa- 
ratus on a dog to measure the flow of saliva. Then he showed the dog 
a bone and at the same time gave him an electrical shock. In diagra- 
matic form : — 

1. Electrical shock— -> i. Skin withdrawn from contact. 

2. Presence of bone*— ^ 2. Increased flow of saliva. 

After a number of such repetitions, the bone was no longer shown and 
it was found that the saliva flowefl in response to the electrical shock 
just as it had originally done in response to seeing the bone. The experi- 
ment thus demonstrated the development of the new bond. 
Situation i, electrical shock*, 

" '^Response 2, saliva flows 



64 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOIvOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Some corollaries to the above law. 

1. If one recites his vocabulary in this way: — 

seeing "der" saying "der" saying ''the" 

" "hund" " "hund" " "dog" 

" "haus" *' "haus" " "house'" 

etc., 
he is strengthening not only the new bond (the dotted line in the dia- 
gram above) but also the bond of pronouncing the word when seen. 
If he learns his vocabulary by merely looking at the foreign word and 
pronouncing its English equivalent, thus: — 

seeing "der" saying "the" 

"hund" " "dog" 

"haus" " "house 

he is strengthening mainly, if not entirely, the new and desired com- 
bination. 

2. But even such a procedure does not lead to the best development 
of one's ▼ocabulary. It leads simply to the connection of "hund" with 
"dog." If one, on the other hand, should on seeing "hund" say "dog," 
then ^'animal," "cur," "Toby," etc., he would give to the foreign word 
"hund" the meanin^^ that attaches to its English equivalent besides 
connecting the two together. 

Professor Gordon has demonstrated this in an experiment when one 
group of students studied an Italian-English vocabularly made up of 
the words in a stanza of a poem. They were permitted to study the 
Tocabulary in any way they pleased for half an hour. The second group 
spent this half hour as follows: — (a) the poem as a whole was ex- 
plained, (b) a close translation was given them, (c) the poem was 
read in Italian, (d) the poem was read in Italian and translated line 
by line, (e) the group read aloud the poem in Italian, then each mem- 
ber of the group did so and gave a translation, (f) the passage was 
read in Italian several times. Both groups were tested at the end of the 
half hour as to their knowledge of the vocabulary, also again a week 
later. The errors made by the two groups were: — 

Test following study, Group I, — 0.58 errors ; Group II, — ^3.83 
Test a week later, Group I, — 6.30 errors; Group II, — 3.50 
"Thus the words learned in lists have the advantage at first but lose 
it later. In addition to a more permanent learning of the individual 
words, the second group were able to recite the poem very creditably.* 
All those who have studied a foreign language have realized the force 
of the conclusion in this experiment. Foreign words learned as a part 
of a vocabulary are not learned in the same way as the same words 

*Kate Cordon. Educational Psychology, 1917, pp. 173-176. 



LESSON 14 65 

whiOi learned daring reading. The word may be known, for example, in 
the Tocabulary but not understood in the text. There are a number 
of reasons for this besides the one suggested above, but let us consider 
it alone here. The foreign word has been connected in the vocabular> 
lesson with an English equivalent, but it has not necessarily been con- 
nected with the great wealth of meaning that the English word carries 
with it. The foreign word may call to mind the English word but the 
English word called to mind may not then call to mind its meaning since 
the foreign word is the situation to which we are primarily reacting, not 
the English equivalent. Under such a condition of affairs two steps 
are necessary before we can use the foreign word in the translation, 
(1) think its EngHsh equivalent, (2) think the English word's meait- 
ings. If the foreign word had been linked up originally not merely 
with its English equivalent, but also with that word's meanings tins 
trouble would not have arisen. The difference between learning the 
meaning of foreign words in vocabularies and in actual reading comes 
down very largely to the psychological difference, in the first case of 
merely connecting the foreign word with an English equivalent, and 
in the second case, of connecting the foreign word with the English 
word's equivalent. Meaning can then be thought of as made up of the 
bonds that are attached to a word. The meaning of "paragraph," er 
"parallax," or "parallel" for any person is the sum total of ideas 
(bonds) that these words arouse. 

All of this applies to teaching the use of new words. "Condcnwition." 
"evaporation," "expansion," "protective coloring," can be taught 99 
that tfie only response is a series of words (a definition) or they can be 
taught so that a whole series of ideas follows requiring the writing of a 
paragraph to express adequately the idea. Demonstrations, experiments, 
discusMons, etc., help here, as contrasted with the mere use of a text- 
book. 
LEASNiwG THRU AN INTERMEDIATE ASSOCIATION (Associative Shifting) 

Having considered at some length the process of learning a Gcrmaa- 
English pair of words thru sheer repetition, let us now consider the 
process when the two words are learned thru the use of an interme- 
diate thought, e. g., "hund-hound-dog." Here again we have the same 
situation-response combinations to start with as before, i. e. : — 
SITUATION RESPONSE 

(i) seeing hund > pronouncing huni 

(2^ " dog > " dog 

(3) " •• > thinking Toby 

(4) " " > " aniiwi! 

etc. 



66 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

But it is evident, in that the individual went from "hund" to "hound," 
that there was also the situation (seeing "hund") — response (saying 
"hound"). In like manner there was also the situation (saying "hound") 
— response (saying "dog"). There is no difficulty attaching to this 
second additional situation-response combination. But there is in the 
first case. Why did "hund" call up "hound?" They have never been 
together before. Can a situation call up a new response of its own ac- 
cord with no previous connection between them? Yes and no. Cer- 
tainly not if there has been no previous connection between them. 
"Hund" would never call up "liez," or "star" for example. But in this 
case, altho the total situation (seeing "hund") and the total response 
(saying "hound") have never been together before, there are parts of 
the situation which have been together with parts of the response. 
The letters "h-und" in "hund" have been together and in the same 
order in "hound." Those individuals who sazv the connection between 
^'hund" and "hound" did so in terms of these common details in the 
total situation and the response (hound). But some individuals did not 
see the connection at first, they discovered it after pronouncing "hund." 
Pronouncing "hund" became the situation which called to mind the 
English word "hound." And here again the details — sound of "h" and 
"nd" in "hund" and in "hound" have been together so that emphasis 
upon "h-nd" could easily lead to "hound," in fact more easily than to 
"hund," because "hound" is a more familiar word than "hund." 

We may then explain the cause of these individuals thinking "hund- 
hound-dog" by stating that they reacted not only to hund as a whole 
situation, but to the details of that situation, and that the reaction to the 
details gave them a response which was already linked up with the 
final response they desired. This process of reacting to a situation in 
terms of some of its parts comes under the Law of Partial Identity. 
When we have no bond between the situation and a response (or often a 
very weak bond) we are quite Ukely to respond to the situation in terms 
of certain of its parts to which we already have a strong bond. In this 
case the bond between "hund" and "dog" did not exist or was very 
weak from only one or two repetitions. We consequently reacted in 
terms of the details "h-und" instead of "hund" and thought "hound" — 
the nearest response to "h-und." 

There is still another factor to be considered. The Law of Partial 
Identity explains why the intermediate word "hound" should come to 
mind. But in terms of this law one would expect also to be reminded of 
such words as "hand" or "hind" as well as "hound." A careful analysis 
of what takes place in learning a vocabulary will reveal that many ir- 



LESSON 14 67 

relevant words do flash thru the mind. But one "dismisses" them im- 
mediately, whereas one "holds on" to relevant words. Moreover, far 
more relevant words come to mind than irrelevant words. Altho the 
chances should be very decidedly against the relevant word, we shall 
have to explain this phenomenon on the basis that not only does the 
word "hund" call up "hound" and other similar words, but the word 
"dog" also calls up words associated with it directly or thru partial 
identity. As the word "hound" is brought to mind by both "hund" and 
"dog" and words like "hand" or "hind" or "animal" or "Toby" are 
brought to mind by only one of the two words, the word "hound" is far 
more likely to come into consciousness than any of the other words. 
This is an example of what is known technically as the summation of 
stimuli. A reaction is more likely to be made in response to two stimuli 
than to only one. One may ignore one ticklish sensation but respond 
violently to two. 

ROTE MEMORY VERSUS ASSOCIATIVE SHIFTING 

Now the essential difference between the person who learned that 
"hund" means "dog" by sheer repetition and the one who learned that 
"hund" meant "dog" thru the intermediary "hound" lies in the fact 
that the former developed a new bond, whereas the latter utilized bonds 
already in existence. And since they were already in existence one 
repetition of the whole was sufficient to make it function efficiently, 
whereas in the former case possibly several repetitions were necessary. 

When a new bond is thus formed, we speak of the process as rote 
memory, whereas when already developed bonds are utilized in linking 
the situation with a new response, we speak of the process as associa- 
tive shifting. The former is the simpler method and undoubtedly the 
more primitive, the latter is characteristic of some of the learning hu- 
man beings are capable of as distinguished from what animals can do. 
In early life much learning is by rote memory. That is one reason we 
commit to memory so much material while still children. In later life, 
having now many bonds, we can learn thru using the old bonds rather 
than by developing new ones. We get the thought but not the phrase- 
ology. But even then much new material has to be learned by rote. 

USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES IN MEMORIZING 

Many attempts have been made to develop artificial schemes by 
which one could substitute associative shifting for rote memory. And 
one or two such systems are constantly being advertised as panaceas 
for all our difficulties in memorizing names and faces and dates, etc. 
Here and there are persons who can utilize such mnemonic devices but 
with most persons it is as difficult to manipulate the scheme as to learn 



68 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

the material outrig-ht. Whether one will be able to substitute associative 
shifting for rote memory depends on the individual himself almost en- 
tirely. In some cases he can utilize the steps employed by another, as 
in the case of learning the Chinese symbol for "well," but ordinarily if 
he does not originate the steps himself they are of little or no value. 
the; effect of position upon learning 
The first and last two or three pairs of words were learned mudi 
more quickly than the pairs in the middle of the list of twenty-five. This 
is a common occurrence under such conditions. Apparently in learning 
a vocabulary, for example, such as : — 

faire — do 

chien — dog 

mouche — fly 

pied — foot 

we not only respond with the word "do" to the situation "faire" but 
also to the situation "first word in the list." Likewise in the case of 
**chien — dog" we not only pronounce the word "dog" in response to 
the situation "chien" but to the situation "second word in the list" and 
Very likely also in such a case to the situation "do," since "dog" is so 
similar to "do." It is apparent that these "position" situations aid us 
materially in committing a vocabulary to memory but later on when 
"faire" Is met in a French story it may not be reacted to because the 
element "first word in a vocabulary" is missing. Learning items in 
terms of "position" is a risky performance if the i cents are to be met 
sing'y iater in life. 

THE PROMPTING METHOD 

What we want in life is to be able to give the English equivalent of 
the foreign word when it is encountered (and vice versa). Thru the 
prompting method we are drilled in reacting to the single words just as 
we shall wish to do later in life. For that reason it is superior to other 
methods of learning vocabularies in which we are drilled to react more 
or less differently from the way we need to respond. The best method 
of memorizing a vocabulary is to prepare small slips of paper. On one 
side write the English term and on the other side the foreign equiva- 
lent. In studying the vocabulary pick up the slip of paper, read off the 
terni on one side and recall its equivalent. If this can not be done, turn 
the paper over and repeat the two terms several times together. After 
thus going thru the list, shuffle the slips of paper and repeat the proc- 
ess. In this way the "prompting method" can be used by one person 
and all associations with position are eliminated. 



LESSON 15 — ^WHAT ARE THE LAWS OF RETENTION? 

We have all had the experience of not being able to remember a 
fact or do a certain stunt which we have been able to do previously. We 
say we have forgotten. Let us look into this matter of forgetting and 
see of what it consists. 

In Lesson 5 the alphabet was repeated forwards ten times and back- 
wards ten times and in Lesson 13 a vocabulary of 25 Spanish-English 
words was memorized. These two experiments will now be repeated 
in order to discover how much has been retained and how much has 
been forgotten. (Obviously, if S practices before coming to class the 
experiment will be ruined.) 

A third experiment is concerned with the extent to which we are 
able to retain what has been presented to us for a very short interval 
■of time. 

( Do not get excited because there are three experiments to do. They 
will not take very long. If necessary you can easily do the third experi- 
ment outside of class upon some friend.) 

EXPERIMENT I. TO WHAT EXTENT DOES ONE RETAIN DURING A PERIOD 
OE TWO AND A HALE WEEKS? SHOWN IN RELEARNING 
. THE ALPHABET. 

Apparatus. Watch with second-hand. 

Procedure. Have S (the same individual who was S in the Alphabet 
experiment in Lesson 5) repeat the alphabet (i) forwards and (2) 
backwards ten times each. Record the time for each trial. 

Results. Plot on one sheet of co-ordinate paper (i) the curve of 
learning the alphabet forwards and (2) backwards as obtained in Les- 
ion 5 and (3) the curve of releaming the alphabet forwards and (4) 
backwards as obtained here. (The results should be worked up after 
completing the next experiment.) 

KXPERIMKNT II. TO WHAT EXTENT DOES ONE RETAIN DURING A PERIOD 

OE HALF A WEEK ? SHOWN IN RELEARNING A 

VOCABULARY. 

Apparatus. The same Spanish-English vocabulary used in Lesson 13. 

Procedure. Use here the same S as in Lesson 13. E prepares another 
blank similar to the model in Lesson 13 and writes in the 25 Spanish 
and English words. He supplies S with a list of the 25 Spanish words. 
There will be no initial reading of the vocabulary to S as was done in 
Lesson 13. When E and S are ready S will commence at the top of the 
list of Spanish words and pronounce the first Spanish word and then 
attempt to give the English equivalent. ( i ) If he does so, E says noth- 

69 



TO INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

ing and S passes to the second pair immediately calling out the Spanish 
word and giving its English equivalent. Etc. (2) If S gives an incor- 
rect English word, E will write that word in Column I opposite the 
appropriate Spanish word, and prompt S as to what the correct 
English word is. S next pronounces the next Spanish word, etc. 
(3) If S makes no reply within 5 seconds, E marks an "x" in Column 
I opposite the Spanish word, and prompts S as to the correct English 
word. Then S pronounces the next Spanish word, etc. 

Repeat the above procedure trial after trial until S can give correctly 
the English equivalent to each of the 25 Spanish words without error 
and without waiting more than 5 seconds in any case. 

Results. Plot (i) the curve of learning the vocabulary as obtained 
in Lesson 13 and (2) the curve of relearning as obtained here. 

i;xpe;riment hi. how many digits can one repeat correctly im- 
mediately AFTER HEARING THEM. (Memory Span Test.) 

Apparatus. List of digits given below. 

Procedure. Using the series of digits given below, read a short 
series to S at the rate of one digit per second. Take the utmost care to 
read so as to ensure even tempo, dear articulation, and entire absence 
of rhythm. 

While E is reading the list to S the latter should keep his mouth 
closed and should not repeat the digits to himself. Directly at the con- 
clusion of the series, let S repeat as much as possible of what has just 
been read him. (In testing young children E should record in writing 
S's reproduction ; with older individuals it is advisable to have S write 
down his own reproduction. In this case S should indicate each omission 
by a dash or a blank space, thus for the series, 9, 4, 7, 3, 5, 8, 6, the reply 
is 9, 4. 7, — , 8, 5, 6, if S is unable to remember the fourth digit and has 
interchanged the fifth and sixth digits.) 

After having read a short series to S and having obtained his cor- 
rect reproduction, read him a longer series. If he is again correct, 
read the next longest, and continue until he makes errors. Suppose his 
first error is with a series of seven digits. Then secure in all three trials 
with the series of six digits, three with seven digits, and three with eight 
digits. In other words discover the longest series that S can repro- 
duce correctly three times, also the shortest series that S cannot re- 
produce correctly at all in three trials, as well as three trials with any 
series of intermediate length. 

Credit S with his best score, i. e., if he responded correctly to all 
three of the 5's, to only one of the series of 6's, and no times to the 
series of 7's ; then credit him with a memory span of 6. A correct an- 
swer means that the digits are not only all repeated but they are re- 
peated in the original order. 









LESSON 15 










MEMORY SPAN TEST 




2. 


7-2 




1-6 


8-S 


3. 


2-9-4 




8-3-7 


9-6-1 


4- 


5-1-8-3 




9-2-7-4 


7-8-2-6 


,S- 


4-7-3-9-2 




6-4-1-8-3 


1-8-3-7-9 


6. 


8-5-1-7-2- 


-9 


2-7-9-3-8-1 


9-4-1-7-3-8 


7. 


2-9-6-4-8-7-5 


9-2-8-5- I -6-4 


1-3-8-5-9-7-4 


8. 


4-7-2-9-3 


-8-1-6 


7-1-8-3-6-2-9-5 


4-6-1-5-8-2-9-7 


9. 


7-2-4-9-3 


■8-6-1-5 


4-7-5-2-9-3-6-1-8 


2-5-9-3-8-1-4-7-6 


10). 


8-3-9-5- I 


-6-2-7-0-4 


4-7-0-2-5-1-9-3-8-6 


2-6-1-4-0-7-3-8-5-9 



In case of any mistake, additional series can be obtained by reading 
the above lists of digits backwards. In retesting an individual this 
should be done. Let each partner act as S in this experiment, if 
there is time. 

Results. Record the memory span of each partner. 

Interpretation. Answer the following questions based on the three 
experiments. 

1. How much do you calculate S forgot during the interval of time 
between the first and second alphabet experiments? between the two 
vocabulary lessons? 

2. On the basis of the first two experiments and your general knowl- 
edge, do you think that a person who had studied Latin two years 
would ever forget the first conjugation? Get as good evidence for your 
view as you can. 

3. In what way is the memory-span test related to the two experi- 
ments on retention ? Explain. In what ways do the two differ ? 

4. According to data furnished by Dr. Stiles*, children have 
memory-spans, as g^ven below. In the second and fourth columns are 
given the average memorj-spans for boys and girls and in the third 
and fifth columns are given the memory-spans that the poorest child of 
the best % of each class had. The data are based on records from 751 
boys and 834 girls. 





BOYS 


GIRLS 






Division between 




Division betweea 


Age 


Average 


best 


V4 


and 


Average 


best 


V4 and 






poorest 14- 






poorest %. 


6 


5-3 




5 




5-5 




5 


7 


>6 




5 




5-6 




5 


8 


6.3 




6 




6.1 




5 


9 


6.5 




6 




6.6 




6 


10 


6.8 




6 




64 




6 


11 


6.6 




6 




6.9 




6 


12 


6.9 




6 




6.9 




6 


13 


6.9 




6 




7.2 




7 


14 


7.2 




6 




7.1 




6 


15 


7.2 




7 




7.2 




7 


16 


7-4 




7 




7.2 




7 


17 


7-5 




7 




7.7 




7 



« C. W. Stiles, Memory Tests of School Children, U. S. Pub. Health Service, Re- 
print No. 3U. Dec. 24. 1 915. 



72 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Dr. Gates* reports the following distribution for 163 college students 
in Visual and Auditory Memory Span. (His results are con- 
verted here into percentages, i. e., 0% of college students have a mem- 
ory span of 4 with visually presented material, 1% have a span of 5^ 
99& of 6, 18% of 7, etc.) 



No. of Digits 


1 4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


Visual Presentation 
Auditory Presentation 


1 
1 


I 

7 


9 
14 


18 
18 


39 
35 


21 
18 


8 
6 


2 

I 


2 

I 



In the light of the figures in these two tables and your own records 
what do you suppose is the relationship between proficiency in memory 
span a«d (i) age, (2) general intelligence? 

5. WoMld you expect as good school work from a child of 12 years 
of ag;e who has a memory span of 5, as you would from a cfattfl with a 
memory syaa of 7? Explain. 

6. Would knowing the memory span of an individual hei{» you at 
all in adruiag him as to the kind of job he should attempt to get? 
G>nsider sacfa jobs as these for a g^rl: saleswoman in a store, cook, 
telephoae operator, stenographer, machine operator, milliner, book- 
keeper, tendier. 

Write up these three experiments following the regular o«tli«e and 
hand io at the next class-hour. Do not forget the heading "Appli- 
cations." 



•A. I. GiiCes. Tke Mn— ■■ic SpiM f*r Vlaml aad Audftary Mci««, Jo«r. Ezper. Parehol-, 
0«t IM*. 



LESSON 16. RETENTION (continued)* 



The subject of retention has to do, of course, with the permaaency of 
our learning. We have seen that in learning we develop a new bond 
between a Situation and its Response. We are here interested in dis- 
covering whether this bond remains permanently in the same condition 
as time goes on. When we learned the alphabet backwards we formed 
new bonds, for example between N and M and between U and T. 
After an interval of time has elapsed will these bonds function in the 
same way as they did just after they were formed? 

Let us consider the data from a subject who did the alphaliet ex- 
periment first on June 17 and repeated it again on June 23. This S 
repeated the alphabet twenty times instead of only ten times. His data 
are as foiUwwE : 

Time, June 17 
26.0 Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 
His last trial on June 17 required 11.4 seconds and the first trial 
six dajrs later took 17.2 seconds. We can say then that he has forgotten 
this performance to the extent of 5.8 seconds (17.2 — 11.4). But this 
does act niean that he has lost all that was gained from the twenty 
trials. If all had been lost it would have taken him 26 seconds on the 
first trirf oa June 23rd. as it took him that long on the first trial of 
June 17. Clearly, then, one does lose during an interval of time part of 
ivhat atte mas able to do, but one does not lose all. Or looking at these 



Trials 
I 
2 
3 
4 



7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

13 

IS 

14 

\l 

If 
16 
19 

20 



22.0 
22.0 
18.8 
17.8 
19.8 
19.0 
18.8 
26.4 
28.4 
16.0 
16.0 

164 
124 

n.S 

144 
114 
114 



Time, June 23 


17.2 


Sec. 


16.2 


Sec. 


17.3 


Sec. 


154 


Sec. 


in 


Sec. 


12.0 


Sec. 


ie.o 


Sec. 


ia.o 


Sec. 


144 


Sec. 


9.« 


Sec. 


I5-J 


Sec. 


\»j& 


Sec. 


loa 


Sec. 


9.2 


Sec. 


IO.D 


Sec. 


lO.O 


Sec. 


8.2 


Sec. 


8.2 


Sec. 


%J> 


Sec. 


9.0 


Sec. 



'^aLASB-ROUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE UP 


R&AD 

Lesson lA 


17 


Discass, Lesson 1 5 
Experiment, Les. 1 7 


Lesson 1 7 



73 



74 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

data in another way, this individual on his eleventh trial on June 17th 
beat his first trial on June 23rd. We might say then that he lost the 
effect of 10 trials during the interval of six days, i. e., the effect of the 
nth to the 20th trial. But on the other hand the loth trial on June 
23rd (9.0 seconds) beat the best record on June 17 (9.6 seconds). That 
is, apparently only 10 trials were needed the second day to accom- 
plish what was not accomplished in twenty trials on the first day's 
practice. 

To sum up, then, this individual retained during the six days the 
effect of the first ten out of the twenty trials or an increase in rate of 
8.8 seconds (26.0 — 17.2). He lost the effect of the last ten trials or a 
decrease in rate of 5.8 seconds (17.2 — 11.4). 

As for the relationship between what one loses and what one re- 
tains, that is found to be dependent on several factors, the chief of 
which is obviously the amount of practice which entered into the pre- 
vious learning-. Without doubt the more thoroughly one learns a thing 
originally the better one can remember it. Hence we say that retention 
is dependent upon amount of practice or that retention is dependent 
upon strefigth of the bond. 

THE EFFECT OF TIME INTERVAL UPON RETENTION 

The results outlined above are characteristic of what one retains and 
what one loses during an interval of time. If the interval is very short, 
one of course retains proportionately a great deal of what he has 
learned and one loses very little. If on the other hand, the interval is 
very long, the relationship is reversed. 

Now it is natural to suppose that the longer the interval of time the 
more one would forget. If one lost 10% during an interval of an hour, 
then one would lose 20% during a two-hour interval, or 30% during 
a three-hour interval. But if this proportion is carried further one 
would lose 100%, or all, in 10 hours and 110% in 11 hours, which is, of 
course, impossible. Apparently this is not the correct conception. The 
rate of forgetting is not proportional to the time that has elapsed. It is 
actually very rapid during the first few minutes and becomes less and 
less as time goes on. In Plate VI are given two retention curves, one 
worked out by Ebbinghaus<'> in 1885, and the other by the writer<2) 
in 1913. 

In Table I are gfiven the data on which these curves are based. 



(1) H. Ebbinghaus, Ueber das Gedachtnis, Leipzig, 1885. 

(2) £. K. Strong, jr.. The Effect of Time- Interval upon Recognition Menorr. 
Psychol. Rev., Sept.. 1913. 



LESSON l6 



75 



TABLE I 

Per cent. Retained After Varying Intervals 



Interval of Time 
15 Seconds 
5 Minutes 

15 

20 ■' 



Results of Ebbinghaus 



30 
I 



Hour 



I 


Day 
Days 


4 
6 


" 


7 
I 


.< 



58.2% 



44-2 



35-8 

337 
27.8 

25-4 



of Time 
Results of Strong 

84.6% 

72.7 

62.7 



55-5 
57-3 
47.2 
50.6 
40.6 

41. 1 
28.8 
22.9 
19.3 



9.6 



42 " 6.3 

From the figures of Ebbinghaus a person retains approximately 
two-thirds of what he learned after 20 minutes, one-half after an hour, 
one-third after 9 hours, and but one-fourth after 2 days. The writer's 
figures show a somewhat greater amount retained after very short inter- 

?€rtint. Keftintd 



Plat« VI. Si»wing effaote of various intorrals of tin» npoo 
Vetantlozi. 
x9 X -y Eaoflkll memory (ZbbtBghana) 
o o Rseognitloxl menoiy. 




•0^ - ... 



Z 3 



76 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

vals of time and a somewhat smaller amount after long intervals of time. 
But the principle remains the same in both. IVe forget very rapidly at 
first and then more and more slowly. 

Retention of Motor Habits. The curves of retention given in Plate 
VI apply to the retention of habits that have been developed with 
relatively few repetitions. When we turn from such performances to 
others, such as dancing, skating, typewriting, handwriting, etc., we 
find that there is no such rapid forgetting as these curves of forgetting 
suggest. After one has once learned to ride a bicycle one will forget 
relatively little during an interval of years in which the bicycle is not 
touched. In such a case a person has not only learned to ride a bicycle 
but he has ridden it time after time until the habit has been, as we 
technically say, over-learned enormously. The extent to which we re- 
tain a habit, whether it be of reciting a poem, playing a piece on the 
piano, or tying our necktie depends then (i) on the interval of time 
since we last practiced the habit, and (2) on the extent to which we 
practiced the habit originally. We may draw the moral from this sec- 
tion that learning any habit to the extent that it will function correctly 
means that we know it at that time, but only much practice over and 
above such learning will insure our knowing it months or years later. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RETENTION 

The term "bond" has been used in this course to cover the nerve con- 
nections involved in learning. Later on certain phases of the nervous 
system will be discussed. At present only one new conception need be 
considered. It is that a nervous current encounters resistance in fk>w- 
ing over a nerve ; and the more frequently such a current fk)ws over a 
particular nerve the less the resistance. 

A habit or memory is today conceived of as due primarily to the 
chemical change in the nerve connections whereby the resistance is 
lowered, thus permitting the nervous current to flow in this particular 
direction rather than in some other direction. 

Consider the analogy in Lesson 12 of Q, blindfolded, learning to go 
in a certain direction over a snow-covered field, depending first on sig- 
nals from P and later on the "feel" of the path he has previously formed 
as distinguished from the untrodden snow. The analogy was presented 
to show how a smoothly running habit could develop from mere ran- 
dom movements. We can liken the resistance encountered in walking 
thru the snow to the resistance offered to a nerve-current br a 
little used nerve. And we can liken the decreasing resistance en- 
countered as the path develops in the snow to the decreasing resistance 
made to a nerve current by a more and more used nerve. At first it makes 
no difference which way Q travels thru the snow, the resistance is equal 



LESSON 1 6 'JJ 

in all directions. Later Q can travel more easily along the path 
he has previously formed than in any other direction. Likewise in re- 
sponding to a new situation (e. g., the attempt to wag the ears) the 
resistance is great over every possible pathway and there results either 
no response at all or all sorts of random movements (e. g., frowning, 
winking, twisting the mouth, raising the scalp, twitching of the toes,, 
etc.). Later the situation produces the one response (moving the ears) 
and no other, because the resistance over the nerves connecting situa- 
tion and response is lower than any other pathway from the situation 
to any other response. The new habit is dependent on the relatively 
low resistance of the nerves Tuhich connect situation and response as 
compared xvith the resistance of the nerves which connect the situation 
with amy other response. The same thing is equally true of retention 
(of memory). In fact, retention is synonymous with lowered resist- 
ance over nerves. The resistance is lowered by use and increases again 
thru disuse. 

At one time memory was thought of as the storing of nerve cells, 
similar to storing a storage room with supplies. Such a conception 
is false. Memories, or habits, are nothing more or less than expres- 
sions of the fact that certain responses will now follow certain situations 
because of low resistance of the nerves comprising the bond. 

With these facts before us we can readily see the futility of suppos- 
ing that a "memory" can be recalled at any time. K "memory" in this 
sense doesn't exist. All that actually exists is a system of nerves with 
low resistance. If the former situation is encountered the proper re- 
sponse will follow because of this low resistance. But the response 
(memory or habit) will never appear unless the original situation (or a 
very similar situation, compare Law of Partial Identity) is presented. 

RELEARNING 

It is clear from what has been established that as soon as practice in 
learning anything ceases one commences to forget. And, moreover, 
that one will forget very rapidly at first and then more and more slowly. 
We should expect that at the commencement of every writing lesson, 
every music lesson, every sort of lesson, the beginner will do more 
poorly than he did at the end of the previous lesson. The first few 
minutes will be spent in relearning what has been lost during the inter- 
val. It is a common observation that it takes a few minutes in which to 
warm up to a subject. Even the athlete finds this to be the case in 
physical work. One should realize then that he cannot do his best 
work at the start, and not get discouraged but quietly and carefully 
go over the performance a number of times until he has releamed what 
he has temporarily lost. Then he can expect to be doing his best work 



78 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHElKS 

and to commence trying to beat his previous record — to improve his 
accuracy and his speed. The writer has found this to be very true in 
his own case in typewriting. If he endeavors to go at full speed when 
he begins to write he only makes mistakes and is apt to continue to 
make more mistakes thruout his entire period of work. But if he will 
content himself by going slow for a few minutes at the start he can 
soon go ahead at full speed making but few mistakes. 

(Some writers maintain that there are two factors involved here — 
one due to relearning and another to warming-up. In studying the rate 
at which individuals work in all sorts of industries it is clear that they 
work more slowly early in the morning than later in the day. This 
phenomenon affords some evidence for a "warming up" factor related 
to getting started going in the day. And likewise there may be a 
similar tendency related to starting working at any particular task, 
besides that involved in "relearning.'' Very often we do not feel at 
all in the mood, as we say, and after working for some time become 
deeply interested and lost in the work. Possibly this change is due to 
other causes than relearning, i. e., bringing the bonds which are 
needed for our work back up to their highest state of efficiency. The 
writer, however, believes that the term "relearning" covers most, if 
not all of these cases, except in the case of the daily warming-up 
phenomenon.) 

PRIMARY AND SIJCONDARY RI^rSNTlGN 

A mental process continues to remain in consciousness for a short 
interval of time. For example I look up a telephone number, lay down 
the book, put the receiver to my ear, and after hearing from central, 
say, "Hemlock 2173-L." Central in a moment replies "Line is busy." 
I hang up and decide to wait a few minutes and then discover the 
number has slipf>ed from my mind. The retention of the number 
from the time it was seen in the book until it was recited to central is 
an example of primary retention. The number was really at no mo- 
ment out of my mind." But as soon as it had been given to central, 
it was dismissed. Now if I could recall it to mind again, as I can my 
own house number, that would be a case of secondary retention or 
recall. The laws of forgetting so far discussed refer to secondary 
retention, a term which covers both recall and recognition memory. 
Primary memory, on the other hand, persists for but a f^w seconds. 
That it seemingly lasts longer is due to the fact that we keep re- 
peating the contents over and over and so continue its existence in 
consciousness. 

The most interesting fact concerning primary memory is given 
us in such an experiment as that of Memory Span. Here is meas- 



LESSON i6 79 

ured the number of digits that can be retained in primary memory. 
An average adult can so hold seven digits. Children differ from 
adults in this respect. A two to three year old can retain but two 
digits. A little later the child can repeat three digits. And so as he 
grows older he acquires a greater and greater ability along this line. 
Defective children without normal mentality often show marked in- 
feriority in their memory span. A child of twelve years of age with 
a memory span of four is most likely to be defective. Recently the 
writer was asked to help a young woman get a job. She was about 
1 8 years old but had a memory span of four. Other tests showed her 
to be but 9 years old mentally. The failure to reach adult proficiency 
in memory span would shut her out of such jobs as a telephone opera- 
tor or stenographer, for in both these occupations there is decided 
need for primary retention. In fact her low memory span em- 
phasized the uselessness of her attempting to do any work which re- 
quired attention upon a number of details at the same time. Running 
a simple machine or selling goods in a 5 and 10 Cent Store would be 
as complicated tasks as she could do. And in fact, these were the only 
jobs this young woman had ever been able to hold more than two weeks. 
One of the most useful tests that can be made on children is this 
one of the memory span. When poor work in school and low memory 
span are found together, it is quite likely to mean that the child is 
dull and cannot do good work. When, on the other hand, poor work 
and a good memory span are found together, it is more than likely 
that the child is not trying sufficiently, or has become discouraged in 
his work for some reason or other, or has been sick and absent and 
missed important points in his lessons. One cannot diagnose all of a 
child's condition with this test, but it is an extremely good one to 
start with. 

METHODS EMPLOYED IN STUDYING RETENTION 

It might be worth while to digress a moment and consider the 
methods employed in the two investigations quoted above. Ebbing- 
haus made up lists of 13 nonsense syllables (such as, neb, pid, raz, tud. 
cor, etc.) He memorized seven such lists one after the other to the 
degree that he could recite the lists once correctly from memory. He 
then releamed the seven lists after intervals of 20 minutes, i hour, 8.8 
hours, I day, 2 days, 6 days and 31 days. He kept a record of the 
number of repetitions that were required to learn a list originally and 
then relearn it. Suppose he required 10 repetitions to learn a list 
originally and after two days he required 7 repetitions to relearn a 
list. It is clear that he has saved 3 repetitions (10-7) and has lost 7 
repetitions after two days as compared with his original learning. 



8o INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Dividing the number of repetitions which he has saved (3) by the 
number of repetitions which he was originally required to make in 
learning the list (i. e., 10) we have 3-10, or 30%, as the amount saved 
or retained after an interval of two days. (This is a comparable method 
to that discussed on Page 68. of Lesson 14, and is techincally known 
as the learning and saving method.) 

In the case of the writer's investigation he employed lists of twenty 
words, S read the list thru just once. Then after one of the thirteen 
intervals of time employed (e. g., 15 seconds, or 8 hours, or 7 days) 
S was given a list of 40 words containing the original 20 words and 20 
new words all mixed in together. S was required to go thru the list 
and mark the words he recognized as having been in the original list. 
The percent recognized gave the amount retained. (This is knovm 
as the recognition method.) 

The two investigations were based on two different types of memory. 
In the case of Ebbinghaus' work S had to recall the list. In the case 
of the writer's investigation S had merely to recognise the words he 
had previously seen, to distinguish between the new words and the old 
words. But in both cases the extent to which S could recall or recogf- 
nize was due to the strength of the bond that had been formed during 
the learning. In the next chapter we shall take up the matter of the 
strength of the bond and consider it more fully. 

SUMMARY 

The principal points considered in the lesson are: 
(i) Retention is dependent on (a) the strength of the bond and 
(b) the interval of time which has elapsed since the last practice. 

(2) We forget very rapidly at first and then more and ntorc slowly. 

(3) Only thru a great amount of practice can one hope to retaa a 
habit over a long interval of time. 

(4) Relearning at the start of any practice is to be expected. 
The following minor points were also touched on. 

(i) The physiological basis for retention. 

(2) Primary versus Secondary retention. 

(3) Use of memory span test in diagnosing an individual's capacities. 

(4) The "learning and saving" method of studying retention. 

(5) The "recognition memory" method of studying retention. 

(6) Recall versus recognition memory. 



LESSON 17 81 

LESSON 17.— WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE STRENGTH 

OF A BOND? 

From our experiments on the learning process we know that prac- 
tice (repetition) results in our doing the task better and better. This 
means that the bond or bonds connecting the situation and the re- 
sponse become stronger and stronger. And from our study of reten- 
tion we have seen that lapse of time in which no practice occurs re- 
sults in our losing some of our efficiency in the task. This means that 
such lapse results in a weakening of the bonds connecting the situa- 
tion and response. Clearly then, use strengthens a bond and disuse 
weakens it 

Let us turn now and see if there are still other factors which affect 
the strength of a bond. 

The class-hour will be devoted to a demonstration experiment. Each 
member of the class will consequently act in the role of subject. Carry 
out the instructions of E as conscientiously as possible but do not 
worry if you find you are not retaining all that is presented. No one 
can. Simply endeavor to pay attention thruout the entire experiment 
and to absorb as much as possible. 

The total results as obtained from the class will be given to you 
before leaving, together with such details of the procedure as are 
essential for you to know. Write up the experiment in the lisual man- 
ner, i. e., «nder the headings : The Problem, Apparatus, Procedure, etc. 
Work »p the data as it seems best to you, bringing out the important 
facts and principles which are illustrated. Hand in your report at the 
next class-hour. 



NOTE FOR INTRUCTOR. Instructions regarding giving this class experiment are 
(iven H9 a footnote in Lesson 16. 



LESSON 1 8 



83 



LESSON 18.— WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE STRENGTH OF 
A BOND? (Continued)'^ 

RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT IN LESSON I7** 

A study of the data obtained from the experiment which was per- 
formed at the last class-hour will satisfactorily introduce the subject as 
to what factors affect the strength of a bond. In Table II are tabu- 
lated the results obtained from 96 men and women. Opposite each 
combination (as B-52 or D-84) is given the per cent, of individuals 
who remembered the combination, that is, the extent to which they 
could supply correctly the numeral when the letter was called out. In 
the last column an average per cent, is given for each of the different 
types of combinations. 



* CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE UP 


READ 


18 
19 
20 
21 


Discuss, Lesson 1 7 
Review, Les. 1-18 

Examination 
Exper. Lesson 2 1 


Lesson 20 
Lesson 2 1 


Lesson 1 8 
Review, Les. I -19 



** The experiment in Lesson 17 should be conducted as follows: Prepare 39 
cardboard cards, 10x6 inches. The first card serves as a cover for the set. On the 
remainder write a letter and numeral (as G 56), occupying an area about 8x4 inches. 
The respective combinations for each card follow: 



1 


G 


56 


2 


7. 


37 


3 


F. 


2i 


4 


J 


64 


5 


K 


38 


6 


M 


47 


7 


K 


91 


8 


Q 


15 


9 


r 


27 


8 


R 


18 



11 


V 


49 


12 


E 


21 


13 


N 


80 


14 


S 


86 


15 


T 


41 


16 


C 


100 


17 


K 


91 


18 


M 


47 


19 


P 


25 


20 


F 


79 



21 


D 84 


31 


W 62 


22 


H 73 


32 


X 72 


23 


R 42 


33 


F 38 


24 


L 50 


34 


B 52 


25 


T 27 


35 


M 47 


26 


F 38 


36 


A 36 


27 


N 53 


37 


T 27 


28 


E 21 


38 


Y 94 


29 


Z 37 






30 


89 







All cards should be numbered in small figures on the back so tha tthey may readily 
be kept in order. On cards Nos. 8 and 31 should be pasted colored paper so that the 
letter-number combination appears on a colored background. (Lavender and orange- 
red were used by the writer.) 

The instructor holds the pack of cards in one hand so that the bottom edge rests 
on an elevated stand. Three seconds after the signal, "Ready," he removes the cover 
card, exposing card No. 1. Every three seconds thereafter he removes another card 
until all have been exposed. 

Occupy the class for three or four minutes so as to prevent them from writing 
down the last few combinations which they hold in mind. 

Now call out the following letters and instruct the class to write down the letter 
and the first number that comes to mind. The letters are B, D, H, P, S, K, Z, E, 
M. F, T, R. N, G, Y, Q, W, C, and L. Then call out the numerals, 36, 89, 64, 49, and 
72, asking for the letters associated with the numerals. 

Next, repeat the lists of letters and numbers giving also the correct associations. 
Obtain the number in the class that got each combination correct; reduce it to percent- 
age, and place the results on the board. Also place on the board the results in 
Table II. 

Make plain to the class the significance of each group of data. The extent to 
which backward associations are formed as contrasted with forward can be pointed out 
from the results obtained where the numerals were called out instead of the letters. 



One Repetition 




B 52 


7% 


D 84 


3.5 


H n 


2.S 


p 25 


55 


S 86 




Two Repetitions 




K 91 


J3.S 


Z 37 


4-5 


Three Repetitions 




E 21 
M 47 


46.5 



84 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

TABLE II. SHOWING EFFECT OF REPETITION, INTENSITY AND 

REORGANIZATION ON ROTE LEARNING. (BASED ON 

RESULTS FROM 60 MEN AND 36 WOMEN. 



S% 



41 
Three Repetitions of One Combination and One Repetkion of 
a Competing Combination 
F 38 (3) 19.S 

79 (i) O 

T 27 (3) 19-5 

41 (u 2 19.5— » 

One Repetition of E)ach of the Competing Combinations 
R 18 (I) o 

42 (1) o 
N 80 Vi) 1 

53 (I) 2 •tS— I 

Contrast: First Place in the List 
^ G 56 5 

Contrast: Last Place in the List 

Y 94 3 

Contrast : Colored Background 

Q 15 12 

W 62 6 9 

Reorganization : Use of Old Bonds 

C 100 60.5 

L SO 2«.5 40.5 

Repetition. In this particular experiment when a combination M^as 
shown once it was remembered by 5% of the individuals, when shown 
twice it was remembered by g%, and when shown three times, by 41% 
of the individuals. These figures show the value of repetition. It 
should not be assumed that they represent what would happen under 
other conditions. The more items shown the weaker is the relative 
value of repetition. If there were but ten addition combinations to 
learn a few repetitions would suffice to fixate them. But as there are 
many more than that very many more repetitions are necessary. The 
figures in the table, however, do illustrate the value of repetition. 
(Review here the value of repetition in learning the alphabet back- 
wards, the mirror-drawing experiment, etc.) 

Interference. In the next two parts of the experiment is illus- 
trated the effect of interference as it works against the effect of repe- 
tition. Interference may be thought of here as equivalent to makiiig 



LESSON l8 85 

mistakes in memorizing the multiplication table or in spelling. When 
"R" is seen with "18" once and "R" with "42" once the effect is that 
no one remembers either combination; instead of 5% remembering" 
both. A bond is started toward perfect development by the presenta- 
tions of "R — 18" connecting "R" with "18". Likewise in the case 
of "R — 42" connecting "R" with '*42." When R is presented again 
neither bond functions as neither has a superiority over the other. In 
the case where "F" was shown three times with "38" and but once with 
"79", 19% recalled "38" when "F" was shown again and 0% recalled 
"79." The competing bond (F-79) injured the other bond (F-38) to 
the extent of the difference between 41% and 19% or 22%. 

Intensity by Contrast. In the next three parts of the table are shown 
three different cases of learning thru contrast. By this it is meant that 
the situation "G-56" is supposed to make a more intense effect than the 
situation "D-84" because "G-56" was the first combination which was 
shown, whereas "D-84" was shown somewhere in the middle of the 
list "Y-94," the last combination to be shown, is also supposed to 
make a more intense effect than the average simply because it comes 
last. In this particular experiment the first and last combinations are 
no better remembered than any of the others. In some experiments 
they are remembered to a greater extent. The writer is convinced on 
the basis of experiments, including from 10 to 150 items, that the first 
and last place are important in a short series but unimportant in 
longer ones. 

Intensity may be illustrated in other ways than in terms of the first 
and last place. In the case of "Q-15" and "W-62" we find they were 
better remembered than the average because of their colored back- 
ground. On the basis of more extensive experiments the writer is con- 
vinced that such a type of intensity is not so effective as indicated here 
by the data. Possibly, the true situation is this. If only one or two 
items are made prominent by a colored background then they are no- 
ticed to a considerable extent and so remembered. If many items are 
made prominent, the intensity factor becomes much less valuable. 
Contrast the value, for example, of one colored advertisement in the 
Saturday Evening Post as against twenty or one hundred. 

'Prominence (intensity or contrast) may aid in learning because the 
item is singled out and noticed more than the others and, therefore, 
remembered better. 

Reorganisation. The reorganization factor is intimately tied up witk 
the bond to be developed. This means that "C-ioo" or "L-50" have 
already been partly learned and that previous learning is now made 
use of here. Just as in the case of "hund" and "dog" calling up 



86 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOWGY FOR TEACHERS 

"hound" and thereby linking "hund" with "dog" by way of the inter- 
mediate step of "hound," so in this case "C" and "lOo" call up the 
Roman system of notation where "C" stands for "lOo" and as soon as 
that is done the "C" in this particular experiment is thought of as 
linked with "lOO." About 55 out of the 96 men and women connected 
"C" and"ioo" together and so remembered the combination. In their 
case the new detail (Roman system of notation), as soon as it was 
recalled, became a part of the situation, so that when later the in- 
structor called out "C," they reacted not only to "C" but also to the 
new detail and consequently wrote down "100." 

WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE STRENGTH OF A BOND? 

In order to make sure that these various factors are clearly under- 
stood let us go over the subject again. We have just mentioned four 
factors as aflFecting the strength of a bond. Lessons 15 and 16 em- 
phasized the negative side of this matter, i. e., that disuse weakens a 
bond. Accordingly a fifth factor may be added to our list, i. e., that of 
"recency." A sixth factor, "effect," will be considered for the first 
time. The six factors are: — 

1. Repetition. 

2. Interference. 

3. Intensity: (a) intense stimulation, (b) primacy, (c) contrast. 

4. Reorganization: (a) use of old bonds, (b) novelty — new com- 
bination of old bonds. 

5. Recency. 

6. EflFect. 

Repetition. We clearly realize that a bond is strengthened thru 
repetition. Our learning in the alphabet, mirror-drawing, and vocab- 
ularly experiments clearly showed this fact. 

Interference is a factor in affecting the strength of a bond. We 
have here the formation of two bonds connecting the same situation 
with two different responses. As both responses can not be made at 
the same time, when the situation is presented, no response results. 
If a child in reciting the multiplication table says 9X7 is 63 and 
later says 9X7 is 67, when called on by the teacher for the answer to 
9X7 he will make no reply in most cases, or wildly guess. To 
strengthen a bond requires then that no competing bonds be formed at 
the same time. After a bond has been well developed, however, a new 
bond may be developed without any great injury to the old one. Herein 
lies one of the reasons for teaching the addition combinations first and 
then the multiplication combinations afterwards. If they were taught 
at the same time there would be great confusion. After the first have 
been well learned then the latter can be readily learned. But even here 



LESSON l8 87 

it is an advantage to keep them apart in the school work until both 
are fairly well developed. 

Distraction is another phase of interference. The playing of a piano 
in the next room intereferes with my studying. Here there is compe- 
tition between situations, i. e., "music" and "algebra" rather than be- 
tween the responses to the same situation. 

Intensity: (a) intense stimulation. Of two repetitions the one 
that is the result of the greater stimulation will result in the greater 
development of the bond. A tiny burn on the skin will not make us 
leave the hot radiator alone like a large burn. A fact learned under 
quiet conditions will not be remembered so well as one which is inti- 
mately connected with strong emotional excitement. In physiologfical 
terms the release of a large amount of nervous current by stimulatiom 
of the sense organs will more materially affect the nerve connections 
than will the release of a small amount of current. This is the basis for 
the factor of intensity as it affects the strength of a bond. In our ex- 
periment there was no adequate example of a violent stimulation. If 
there had been that combination would have been exceedingly well 
remembered. This might have been accomplished in the experiment by 
having exposed a combination twice or three times as long, or by hav- 
ing the instructor call out the combination as he showed it. But 
neither of these are comparable to the intense stimulation we experi- 
enced when we caught a bee the first time. Thruout life that one 
experience of being stung is remembered and we markedly differen- 
tiate bees and other insects. The artificial production of great stimu- 
lation is extremely difficult to accomplish in influencing others. The 
orator tries to bring it about by arousing our emotions and driving 
home his point thru this added excitement. It is done sometimes thru 
punishment. But after all it is difficult to do and seldom done in a 
very effective manner. What is actually done is to employ, what has 
been called here, contrast effects. 

Intensity: (b) primacy. Primacy in the sense of the "first response 
to a situation" derives its strength from lack of interference. When 
once a child has pronounced a word incorrectly or has named an object 
incorrectly it is a very much more difficult task to correct the error than 
to teach a new word. Often primacy is confused with intensity, as in 
the case of catching a bee. In the experiment, "G-56" can hardly be 
construed as an example of primacy as this is not the first time a re- 
sponse has been made to "G." 

Intensity: (c) contrast. The contrast factor has reference essea- 
tially to a difference which is not a vital part of the bond to be devel- 
oped. For example, "G-56" occupying first place in the list is remem- 



88 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOIvOGY FOR TEACHERS 

bered better than "D-84", occupying an inconspicuous place in the list. 
Position is not intimately tied up with the bond connecting G with 56 
or D with 84. The same is the case with the combinations "Q-15" and 
"W-62," which had colored backgrounds. The contrast factor of dif- 
ference in background is not intimately a part of the bond to be de- 
veloped connecting Q with 15 or W with 62. These contrast effects do 
tend to single out the particular combinations so favored and because 
tfiey are singled out they are more intensely noticed and so retained. 
But this additional gain amounts to only a few per cent, in most cases. 

The fact that different degrees of stimulation do affect the strength 
of the bond must not be overlooked. But, as already pointed out, this 
is difficult to accomplish. What generally is resorted to is contrast. 
And this is often of no particular value. Sometimes, it is worth while, 
but it does not compare in value with the factor of reorganization. 

Reorganisation: (a) use of old bonds. Reorganization is also a fac- 
tor in strengthening a bond. It is not a factor in the development of a 
really new bond, of course, but from the practical point of view of 
learning it is a most important factor since a great deal of our learning 
consists of linking a situation with a response by means of already es- 
tablished bonds. To link "hvmd" with "dog" by means of the ele- 
ment "hound" is just as truly learning as to connect them directly 
together. 

Two degrees of reorganization may be recognized, (a) thru tlie use 
of old bonds, or (b) thru the use of old bonds combined in a new 
way (novelty). Both are most effective but the latter is the better of 
the two. 

The case of learning "C-ioo" thru linking up "C" with "Roman no- 
tation" is an excellent example of the use of old bonds. So also is that 
of learning that "hund" means "dog" thru utilizing "hund-hound" and 
"hound-dog." The old, old adage in education of "going from the 
known to the unknown" in teaching covers this point because when we 
start in to teach a new thing and first consider all of its phases which 
are already known, the child connects it up with old bonds and so util- 
izes them in learning. 

Reorganication: (b) novelty — new combination of old bonds. In 
this type of reorganization we use old bonds as in the cases just dis- 
cussed, but we go farther and present them in a new or novel com- 
bination. The writer was lecturing one hot day just after lunch, upon 
this subject and the students gradually became more and more list- 
less and inattentive. Now either contrast or reorganization could be 
utilized to get their attention. The writer could have talked louder, or 
paced up and down the room, or written on the board, etc. All these 



LESSON 1 8 89 

would 1)6 contrast effects and would have some effect. Instead he 
described in his ordinary tone of voice an advertisement entitled some- 
thing like this, "How does (an actor) make a cat yawn on the 

stage every night?" Immediately, the class was awake and paying at- 
tention. Why? Because a situation made up of details with very old 
and well developed bonds was presented. And the combination was 
new. The words "cat," "yawn," "stage," and "night," have very 
strong bonds. Such a novel reorganization of old, familiar situations 
will always attract attention (i. e., be responded to) and will easily be 
retained. 

There is a profound difference between learning a new thing and 
learning a neiv combination of old things. The former is most unin- 
eresting and difficult to "get a hold of," despite the popular notion. 
Consider how uninteresting the first lesson in physics or algebra was, 
or how little you read of foreign countries you have not visited. On 
the other hand, consider with what interest the expert milliner reads 
over technical discussions of the latest styles, or a botanist seizes upon 
a new flower, or you read descriptions of places you have visited. The 
average visitor to Niagara Falls or Yosemite is very often disap- 
pointed at first. The scene is too new to make an impression. But as 
he continues to drink in the scene for several days it grows and 
grows on him because he has commenced to link it up with his other 
experiences. A big dog is a contrast to an ordinary sized dog. It 
arouses some notice and is more likely to be remembered than the 
average dog. But a dog with a pipe in his mouth is a novelty — a new 
combination of two old familiar things (dog and pipe). That dog 
draws a crowd. 

In teaching, in advertising,' or in any field where one desires to 
create an impression and have it retained, that impression can be most 
easily and efficiently accomplished by linking up the parts of the new 
impression thru the use of old bonds, old ways of thinking. A novel 
presentation (i. e., one capable of reorganization by the learner) accom- 
plishes most. And it is efficient just in the degree that the 
old is utilized by the learner in connecting the new together. Contrast 
effects, such as increasing the size of the type in an advertisement or 
the size of the advertisement itself, or giving it a colored background, 
or yelling at the class, or writing an assignment in pink chalk, or 
wearing a florid necktie, do not aid particularly in developing the new 
bonds presented in advertising, teaching, or salesmanship, and some- 



(I) See H. L. Hollingworth, Advertising and Selling, 1913, Chapters V and VI for 
an extended discussion of the factors of contrast and novelty as utilized in adver- 
tising. 



90 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR T^ACHEr*? 

times they positively interfere thru distraction (interference). 

When the lesson can only be learned thru the development of new 
(actually new) bonds, then drill (repetition) is the only solution. This 
does not mean that the lesson need be recited over and over in the 
same way. No. Proper drill is repetition carried on in various ways 
so that the learner will not tire of the monotony, but will be stimulated 
by changes in the performance; and where nevertheless the essential 
part is repeated again and again until mastered. 

Recency. The experiments in relearning the alphabet and vocabulary 
have clearly demonstrated that we forget, that our bonds do deteriorate 
if they are not used. The more recently we have performed an act 
the better can we do it again. 

Effect. In addition to the foregoing five factors which affect the 
strength of a bond. Thorndike lists a sixth — that of effect.' When 
we make a response to a situation and feel satisfied or pleased, then the 
bond is strengthened because of the satisfyingness. When the re- 
sponse is followed by dissatisfaction, the bond is weakened because of 
the dissatisfyingness. Moreover, the closer or more intimate the re- 
lationship between the performance and the satisfaction or dissatisfac- 
tion the more pronounced is the effect upon the strengthening or 
weakening of the bond. 

Psychologists are not all agreed upon this point. Some, like Wat- 
son^, deny the existence of such a factor. Others, like the writer, are 
not agreed that Thorndike's explanation is correct but accept the prac 
tical results as stated by him. This is not the place to consider the 
technicalities of the controversy. From our standpoint, the practical 
implications are true. 

Effect influences learning because the resulting satisfaction or dis- 
satisfaction establishes, first, a standard in terms of which successful 
movements are repeated and unsuccessful ones discontinued, and sec- 
ond, the organism continues a process which gives him pleasure and 
discontinues a process which gives him displeasure. All of Watson's 
experiments in which he rewards the correct movement and punishes 
the incorrect ones bear this out. His rats choose the former because 
thc^ are so constituted that they go toward food and not away from 
it, avoid an electric shock instead of seeking it. We develop habits 
which result in our being able to do what we enjoy and we do not form 
habits which result in unpleasantness. 

The Law of Effect which we add to our five other factors means, 
then, that learning is dependent (i) on the presence of some standard 

(1) E. L. Thoradike. Educational Psychology, 1913, Vol. II., p. 4. 

(2) J. B. Watson, Behavior. 1914, Chapter VII. 



LEISSON l8 91 

which determines when the learning process (random movements) is 
ended, (and it is ended when we obtain a more satisfactory state than 
before, or are completely exhausted) and (2) on the fact that we will 
continue pleasant responses but will not continue unpleasant ones. 

The second thought in Thorndike's statement is also important. The 
sooner after the movement has been made that we know we are on the 
right track or on the wrong track (i. e., experience pleasantness or 
unpleasantness), the greater is the value of this factor in learning. If a 
child has spelled incorrectly or disobeyed his mother then immediate 
punishment is far more efficient than delayed punishment. In fact, in 
teacliing animals or small children only immediate praise or punish- 
ment is worthy of consideration. As one grows older one can profit 
from satisfaction or dissatisfaction after much longer intervals be- 
tween the execution of the act and the resulting realization that one has 
performed the act correctly or incorrectly. Nevertheless the shorter 
the interval of time the greater the value of this factor of "effect." 
Conscientious high school or college teachers of English labor for 
hours making detailed corrections in grammar, etc., in themes and 
then wonder why the same mistakes are made again and again. One 
reason is undoubtedly that the correction follows so long after the 
act. Immediate correction would accomplish wonders here as con- 
trasted with this long delayed arousal of dissatisfaction. Grammar 
school teachers, on the other hand, require each child to write his les- 
son on the board and call upon him to defend it before the class. Here 
tlie interval between execution and realization is reduced to a minimum. 

MISCELLANEOUS FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING IN GENERAL. 

Individuals differ in ability to learn, as we shall see in lessons to 
follow. Some are bright and quick, others are dull and very slow. 
The age of the individual is a factor. Experiments prove that we im- 
prove in learning capacity as we advance from childhood to maturity. 
General health also affects learning, altho not so much as is popularly 
supposed. A hard cold interferes because it makes us loath to work. 
Probably, if we tried as hard, we would learn just about as well. 



The next class-hour (the 19th) will be devoted to a review of Lessons 
i-i8, followed by a written examination during the 20th class-hour. 
Read over Lesson 19 in connection with the review. 



92 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

LESSON 19— THE LEARNING PRCX:ESS IN GENERAL 

SOME BONDS ARE UNLEARNED, OTHERS ARE LEARNED. 

All acts of behavior involve a response to a situation. And this 
condition postulates the existence of a bond between situation and re- 
sponse. It is evident from the experiments which have been performed 
that bonds are formed — that at one time in a person's life certain 
bonds did not exist which later came into existence. Such changes 
are what is meant by learning — the development of new bonds. 
A still closer study of man's behavior, especially when he is an infant, 
leads us to realize that there are some bonds which do not develop thru 
the process of learning. Such bonds develop naturally: just as natur- 
ally as do man's teeth, hair, blood vessels, or digestive system. Situa- 
tion-bond-response combinations which develop naturally are referred 
to as reflexes or instincts. Combinations, on the other hand, which 
are developed thru learning are termed habits. 

Reflexes and Instincts. A reflex is an act in which there is a single 
situation as the cause of the stimulation followed by a simple response, 
the bond or connection between sense-organ and muscle being un- 
learned. Reflex acts are such as, jerking the hand away from a hot 
stove, winking when an object suddenly comes toward us, coughing 
when the throat is irritated, etc. An instinctive act, on the other hand, 
is one in which there is a more complex situation, ordinarily, followed 
by a more complex response, the bond being also unlearned. Instincts 
would be illvistrated by such behavior as a mother's interest in her 
baby, fear and flight from a large animal, a boy's interest in girls, etc. 

There can be no sharp line of demarcation drawn between reflexes 
and instincts any more than all men can be divided into two groups 
of short and tall men. Some men are undoubtedly short or tall, just as 
some of these unlearned acts are clearly reflexes or instincts. But 
most men are neither decidedly short nor tall. In the same way most 
unlearned acts can be classified either as reflexes or instincts depending 
upon the definitions set up. In a general way, reflexes are simple acts, 
involving little or no consciousness of what is being done and seem- 
ingly an action carried on by only a part of oneself, as my hand, my 
eye, etc. Instincts are more complex, consciousness is involved, and 
I feel that I myself am involved, as when I pet a baby, or run from a 
bull, or get interested in a girl. 

The most important point to note in all these cases is that the re- 
sponse is always one that is made nalurally without any training. In 
other words, the bond connecting situation and response is unlearned. 

It is not a part of this treatise to consider the subject of man's in- 



LESSON 19 93 

stincts. The subject is large enough and important enough to warrant 
an equal amount of space to it as is given here to the learning process. 
But it should be realized that man is equipped by nature, thru his re- 
flexes and instincts, to respond in certain definite ways to thousands of 
situations which will confront him in life. This means that nervous 
connections are already formed between sense-organs and muscles, so 
that when man is confronted with certain situations he responds auto- 
matically, immediately and without conscious guidance. 

Habits. On the other hand, habits are situation-bond-response com- 
binations w'' ich have been developed thru training. At one time there 
was no b^niJ Unless such new bonds were formed man would not 
advance beyond the limits of his reflexive and instinctive equipment. 

HOW ARE NEW BONDS FORMED? THE LEARNING PROCESS 

Associative Shifting. A habit may develop from a combination of 
two already formed situation-bond-response combinations. This proc- 
ess we have called associative shifting. (See Lesson 14.) 

Trial and Error. The second method of learning involves those cases 
in which we are confronted with a situation to which we do not have 
the correct response. Either the movement or movements which are 
required for the appropriate response have never been made at all or 
the particular grouping of movements has never been made. So we 
learn thru random movements. For example, I may learn to wag my 
ears altho at the present time I cannot move them. Or I may learn to 
trace a diagonal line in the mirror after practice. In this case I must 
make not a new movement itself but a new combination of two move- 
ments in response to an old situation. Suppose the line appears like 
this in the mirror <;;^ Ordinarily I would trace between these 
lines by moving my hand to the right and away from my body. But in 
the ex'^eriment I must move my arm to the right and toward the body. 
This n^w combination must be learned thru "trial and error," par- 
ticularly when I am not aware of just what the situation is. Even if I 
did know the above facts, altho that would aid me decidedly, still I 
should have to learn to make the new combinations thru "trial and 
error." 

As a seven-weeks' baby lies in its basket it will be observed to kick 
its legs, turn in a twisting manner, draw up its arms, cry, wrinkle its 
face, kick again, turn its head, etc., and possibly once in an hour of such 
stru^^Hng ^mit a single vowel sound. All of these movements are 
parts of i'^s renertoire of movements, all belong to this or that reflex or 
instinctive movement soon to ripen into the complete smooth working 
reflex or instinct. The single vowel sound is a part of the reflex ac- 
tion of crying but in a sense it is not a part of that reflex when occur- 



94 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

ring all alone. Occurring all alone it is an accidental happening: part 
of the crying reflex was stimulated but not all. In early life, particu- 
larly, the nervous system generates an excess of energy which activates, 
because of the excess, not only the appropriate muscles connected with 
the stimulations of the moment but also other muscles which do not, 
of course, produce movements in perfect keeping with the stimulation. 
Thus because of this overflow of energy from time to time other move- 
ments than reflex and instinctive movements take place. In this way 
the vowel sound appears. Once having occurred alone, separate from 
crying in general, according to the laws of practice, it is likely to occur 
again. And so as we watch the baby develop we find the single vowel 
sound occurring more and more often until finally it becomes a regular 
part of its total repertoire. (Review here again Lesson 17 as it refers 
to this point.) 

If a situation to be properly reacted to requires a new movement, 
the learning must take the form of "trial and error." 

PERCEPTION ANOTHER TERM FOR HABIT. 

A perception is a type of learned performance where the emphasis 
is not upon the muscular response but upon the content we have in 
consciousness. For example, I meet a baby on the street. When I 
smile, enjoy the cunning baby, etc., the response is mainly instinctive. 
When I call out, "Hello, what are you doing?" the response is mainly 
habitual (I learned to talk and to salute babies that way). When, on 
the other hand, I mainly contemplate the baby and am conscious cf its 
pretty hair, bright eyes, pink dress, dirty face and hands, etc., the re- 
sponse is termed perceptual — the emphasis is not upon what I do 
(whether instinctive or habitual) but upon what is in my consciousnes.-?. 
The term perception is used so extensively in psychology and educa- 
tion that it is important to understand its use. 

Consider this case of the development of a percept. It is learned 
both thru associative shifting and random movements. A rattle is 
placed before a baby. 

SITUATION RESPONSE 

eyes focused on object (i, e.. re- 
flex movements of muscles 
controlling lens, convergence 
Rattle near by (retina of eye of two eyes, movements of 
stimulated) head, and possibly much of 

the upper body) (Visual sen- 
sation in consciousness) 
reaches for rattle (leading to 
what follows. 



LESSON 19 95 

fingers close about rattle 

(touch sensations in con- 
sciousness), followed by fur- 
ther cutaneous' and kinxsthe- 
Fingers touching rattle tic^ stimulations being aroused 

(skin stimulated) which in turn bring about new 

manipulatory movements. 

manipulatory movements, which 

cause new visual stimulations, 

also auditory stimulations. 

head turned so as better to hear 

noise (i. e., reflex movements 

Noise of rattle of muscles which turn head 

(ear stimulated) and possibly upper part of the 

body) (auditory sensations in 
consciousness). 
After a short time it is clear that any one of the stimulations thru 
touch, vision, or hearing would immediately call up any one or all of 
the responses listed above. In this way thru continued experience what 
we call the perception of a rattle becomes established. In other words, 
seeing or touching or hearing a rattle becomes associated with how it 
appears, feels or sounds so that the sound alone, for example, arouses 
in consciousness a percept of how it appears, feels to the touch, and 
sounds. 

It is customary to call these learned reactions in the case of the rat- 
tle perceptions. They are habits just as much as in the case of saying 
"dog" in response to "hund." From continued repetition of certain 
situations, together with their responses the various situations become 
connected up with the responses of the other situations, as well as with 
their own responses. Apparently this process of thus connecting up 
new responses with situations is one of the most important functions 
of the nervous system. 

SUMMARY. 

In reviewing what we have learned concerning the learning process, 
it is clear that we started with certain situations which are connected 
up with certain responses thru heredity or previous experience, and we 
have formed new connections by having the parts presented one or 
more times together. These new combinations of situation and re- 

( 1 ) Cutaneous stimulations are stimulations affecting the skin, giving one, in terms of 
consciousness, touch, pain, warmth and cold and combinations of these. (Lesson 35 will 
present the subject in more detail.) 

(2) Kinaesthetic stimulations are stimulations affecting sense-organs, located in and 
about the muscles and joints, giving one, in terms of consciousness, movement, weight, 
pressure, etc. (Discussed further in the following lessons.) 



96 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

sponse are habits; they are learned connections in contradistinction to 
reUexes, which are unlearned connections. 

Also because of our psysical nature, which is so constituted that 
changes can take place in it, new situation-bond-response combinations 
can be formed (i. e., habits). These habits appear thru the combining 
or modifications of reflexes, instincts, and already existing habits. The 
overflow of nervous energy resulting in random movement is an im- 
portant factor in the development of these habits. 

WHAT THE LEARNING PROCESS MEANS TO EDUCATION 

Evidently, learning is connecting. It is the forming of a bond be- 
tween a situation and a response ; the development of a habit. Clearly 
also, early in life the new connections will be slight modifications of 
reflex and instinctive actions ; later the new connections may join great 
groups of complex habits together into such complicated processes as 
playing the piano or solving an original in geometry. 

Teaching is, then, the manipulation of the details making up the 
situaJions which confront children so that as they respond they will 
constantJv form ne^v liabits atid, moreover, Iwbits that are desirable 
ones. If the desired responses are new ones for the child then the 
learning must be of the "trial and error" type. But if the desired re- 
sponse is one that is already a response to another situation the new 
situation and old response can be connected together thru associative 
shifting. For example, take the case of a boy learning to climb over a 
wooden fence. If he goes at it alone it will be largely a matter of 
''trial and error." because he will not analyze the entire performance 
into parts each of which he is already capable of doing. But if one 
who understands the movements to be made stands by and calls out, 
"Now climb the ladder" he will make the movements previously asso- 
ciated with climbing a ladder. "Now put one leg over the top," he 
will respond by throwing one leg over the top board, as he has often 
done in climbing out of his crib. "Now cross your hands," "Now put the 
other le^ over," "Now face me," "Now climb down," he will climb 
over the fence in a fairly smooth and efficient way the first time. He 
does so because he has utilized old responses, one at a time, and he has 
utilized them because the old situations connected with them have been 
presented by the parent in the proper sequence. A little practice, then 
results in connecting all of these responses together in a string just as 
the responses in saying each letter of the alphabet are connected to- 
together. 

In what has gone before we have obtained a general conception of 
the learning process and of the mechanism by which situations become 
linked up with responses. In the lessons to follow we shall take up the 
matter of learning in greater detail. But the whole subject centers about 



LESSON 19 97 

this main theme just expressed that the child's learning is conditicHied 
by the skill the teacher displays in presenting situations to him. Les- 
sons are difficult or easy depending not on the material of the lesson, 
ordinarily, but upon the order of presentation of the details in the 
lesson — an order depending upon what habits the child has already 
acquired. 



The next class-hour (the 20th) will be devoted to an examination 
covering the work of the course. 



98 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY I^OR TEACHERS 

LESSON 20— MEASURING DIFFERENCES OF PERFORMANCE 
AMONG INDIVIDUALS 

The general characteristics of learning have now been presented. 
Differences between individuals have so far been ignored in our eager- 
ness to discover the common principles found true of all individuals. 

Jt is important to stop now and resurvey some of our material to 
see to what extent individuals are alike and to what extent they are 
different, and in what the differences consist. 

In order to make these studies effectively it is necessary to become 
iiamiliar with three mathematical conceptions, known as the "average 
deviation" (discussed in this lesson), the "normal curve of distribu- 
tion" (Lesson 25), and the "coefficient of correlation" (Lesson 31). 

All of these conceptions are basic to modem psychology, as well as 
to biology, sociology, economics, education, etc., and are worth under- 
standing for their own sake, as well as for their use as tools in apply- 
<ing scientific principles to everyday problems. 

THE AVERAGE DEVIATION. 

Two fourth grade classes (A and B) were given the same test. The 
scores of the twenty students were as follows: 



CLASS A 


CLASS B 


Pupils 


Grades 


Pupils 


Grades 


I 


96 


21 


87 


2 


88 


22 


80 


3 


80 


23 


74 


4 


80 


24 


73 




68 


25 


64 


5 


68 


26 


63 


7 


60 


27 


58 


8 


60 


28 


57 


9 


5^ 


29 


56 


10 


56 


30 


55 


II 


52 


31 


53 


12 


52 


32 


52 


13 


44 


33 


46 


14 


40 


34 


43 


15 


36 


35 


41 


16 


36 


36 


40 


17 


24 


37 


32 


18 


24 


38 


31 


19 


24 


39 


30 


20 


16 


40 


25 



Total 1060 1060 

Average 53 53 

When we average the twenty grades in each class we find the aver- 
ages are the same, i. e., 53. But when we look over the scores we dis- 
cover immediately that the two classes are not equal in performance. 



LESSON 20 99 

Class A has two students superior to any in Class B and four students 
inferior to the poorest in Class B. As far as this particular test is 
concerned it shows that the students in Class A are more unlike among 
themselves than are the students in Class B. In other words, there are 
greater differences in ability in Class A than Class B. 

Such differences in ability in classes form an important consideration 
in the administration of a school. For the more homogeneous a class, the 
easier it is to handle. One of the duties of a principal is to assign 
pupils so as to have the smallest differences possible in a class. We 
shall come to appreciate this point more fully in the next few lessons. 

It is clear that to state that Classes A and B have the same average 
is not sufficient. The total grades tell us another important point. But 
it is extremely awkward to have to reproduce in a report all of the 
grades of the pupils. Is there not some short-cut method by which 
these individual differences can be expressed? 

It is just this, that the "average deviation" does give us. It is a 
measurement used as a supplement to the average in studying individ- 
ual differences. This measurement means exactly what the two words 
imply — the average amount of difference of the individuals making up 
the group from the average of the group as a whole. Consider care- 
fully how it is obtained in the following examples (Table III). First, 
the average of the figures themselves is obtained. Second, the differ- 
ence between the average and each separate figure is obtained. Third, 
the average of these differences or deviations is obtained. This is the 
average deriation (A. D.) 

Knowing the average for each class and the average deviations, i. e., 
Class A Average 53, A. D. 18.2 
Class B Average 53, A. D. 13.7 
we can readily determine, if we do not have the original data, that 
there was a very great variation in the individuals. But of the two 
classes Class B is more homogeneous. We know now for certain 
that the average does not represent what all twenty pupils did. Far 
from it. Some must have varied above and below 53 by more than 
18.2 (or in Class B more than 13.7) in order that the average of all the 
deviations should be 18.2. 

It is mathematically true that very few cases will ever differ from 
the average by more than three times the A. D. For example, it is 
unlikely we would have pupils in Class A with grades higher than 53 + 
(3X18.2) or 107.6, or lower than 53 — (3X18.2) or — 1.6; and in Class 
B higher than 53+ (3X13-7) or 94.1, or lower than 53— (3Xi3-7). or 
1 1.9. In these particular classes we do not have any cases varying as 
much as these limits. 



100 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



TABLE III. ILLUSTRATING THE METHOD OF OBTAINING THE 
AVERAGE DEVIATIONS (A. D.) 
The left hand of the table illustrates the work involved in obtaining the A. D. 
of the grades of the 20 pupils in Class A, while the right half of the table 
shows similarly the work involved in obtaining the A. D. of the grades in 
Class B. 





CLASS 


A 


Pupils 


Scores 


Diflferences 


I 


96 


96—53=43 


2 


88 


88-53=35 


3 


80 


80—53=27 


4 


80 


80—53=27 


5 


68 


68-53=15 


6 


68 


68-53 = 15 


7 


60 


60— 53-^ 7 


8 


60 


60—53= 7 


9 


56 


56—53= 3 


19 


56 


56—53= 3 


II 


52 


53—52= I 


12 


52 


53—52= I 


13 


44 


53—44= 9 


14 


40 


53—40--= 13 


15 


36 


53—36=17 


16 


36 


53—36=17 


17 


24 


53-24-^29 


18 


24 


53—24=29 


19 


24 


53—24=29 


20 


16 


53—16=37 



Total 1060 364 

Av. 53 18.2 

The A. D. is 18.2 — the average of 
the differences (deviations). 





CLASS B 




Pupils 


Scores 


Di''er' nces 


21 


87 


87—53=34 


22 


80 


80—53=27 


23 


74 


7 -,.o"=2I 


24 


73 


73 -S.'i =20 


25 


64 


64—53=11 


26 


63 


63—53=10 


27 


58 


58—53= 5 


28 


57 


57—53= 4 


29 


56 


56—53= 3 


30 


55 


55—53= 2 


31 


53 


53—53= 


32 


52 


53—52= I 


33 


46 


53—46= 7 


34 


43 


53—43=10 


35 


41 


53—41 = 12 


36 


40 


53—40=13 


37 


32 


53—32=21 


38 


31 


53—31=22 


30 


30 


53—30=23 


40 


25 


53—25=28 



1060 274 

53 137 

The A. D. is 13.7 — the average of 
the differences (deviations). 



PROBLEMS 

Find the A. D. of the grades in the following classes : 

1. Class C is composed of pupils i, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, and 19 
in Class A given above. 

2. Class D is composed of pupils 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20. 

3. Class E is composed of pupils i to 5, and 16 to 20. 

4. Class F is composed of pupils 6 to 15, inclusive. 

Check your answers with the instructor at the next class-hour. If 
incorrect spend part of that hour making sure you understand how to 
get an A, D. 

NOTE — Bring co-ordinate paper with you to the next class-hour. 

LESSON 21— HOW DO INDIVIDUALS DIFFER IN LEARNING 
MIRROR-DRAWING ? 

We have so far studied a number of learning curves. We have dis- 
covered some general facts about the process of learning, — about the 
process of learning taken on the average. But it is worth while to stop 
and consider whether all individuals learn in the same way. 



LESSON 21 lOI 

We know that people differ. We know that they differ in the way 
they do a certain lesson, that they differ in the time it takes them to 
learn the lesson, in the way they answer questions about the lesson, 
etc. We know some get good marks and some get poor marks. Why 
are there all these differences? What are the causes of individual 
differences ? 

Let us consider just one of these problems. Let us study the data 
from lo individuals in the mirror-drawing experiment and see in what 
respects they are alike and in what respects they are different. 

Below are given the results of ten individuals (called A to J) in the 
mirror-drawing experiment. The records are a combination of their 
time and error data. Endeavor to discover by yourself, together with 
the help of your partner, as many ways as you can in which these rec- 
ords are (i) alike and (2) different. That is, exactly what are the 
characteristics which are common to the learning of these ten indi- 
viduals and on the other hand, in what respects do the records of their 
learning differ ? 

TABLE IV. RECORDS OF TEN DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS (A— T) IN 
MIRROR-DRAWING EXPERIMENT* 
Each figure represents the time consumed in doing the drawing plus the num- 
ber of errors that were made in that drawing. 
Trials A B C D E 

1 232 76 210 363 216 

2 193 77 152 167 147 

3 157 80 115 128 160 

4 115 68 108 143 113 

5 133 70 108 132 no 

6 88 57 115 125 103 

7 87 65 96 121 90 

8 90 62 92 149 91 

9 102 65 62 140 92 

10 88 54 71 121 75 

11 102 59 68 121 90 

12 88 63 59 112 74 

13 87 51 56 95 64 
M 79 57 58 95 70 

15 89 53 60 86 75 

16 64 48 55 114 59 

17 68 46 61 100 62 

18 71 Z7 53 116 59 

19 55 49 42 122 51 

20 61 50 58 8s 52 

The Use of Tables of Statistics versus Curves. When confronted with 
a lot of figures as in Table IV, one should endeavor by some means or 
other to present them in a diagram or set of curves. No one can grasp 
the significance of a complex set of figures from studying the figures 

«"T"he data presented here were actnaHy obtained frr^m ten ind'vid'ia!=^. The indi- 
viduals have been so selected, however, that the conclusions obtained from these data 
will agree very closely with similar calculations based on a study of 56 individuals. 
TTie averages obtained from 56 men and women are respectively: — 242, 159, 137, 120, 
114, 99. 94, 86, 88, 83, 79, 76, 74, 74, 70, 70, 68, 64, 64, 63. 



F 


G 


H 


I 


J Average 


286 


283 


701 


129 


131 


263 


144 


148 


184 


94 


90 


140 


log 


69 


148 


98 


75 


114 


141 


66 


144 


91 


67 


106 


97 


76 


98 


84 


75 


98 


09 


59 


90 


69 


64 


87 


97 


50 


87 


67 


67 


l^ 


III 


53 


81 


75 


51 


86 


101 


48 


79 


70 


49 


81 


89 


56 


72 


55 


49 


73 


115 


56 


71 


66 


51 


80 


87 


51 


58 


57 


55 


70 


90 


50 


63 


55 


47 


66 


87 


44 


56 


59 


46 


65 


81 


43 


55 


59 


38 


64 


84 


38 


54 


51 


44 


61 


81 


36 


54 


59 


43 


61 


71 


43 


62 


54 


30 


60 


69 


40 


53 


52 


31 


56 


70 


35 


60 


40 


36 


55 



I02 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

themselves with anywhere near the ease that he can from seeing those 
same figures set forth in curves. In general, curves should be used 
for discovering or for presenting general relationships, while tables 
should be used when the facts need to be ascertained very accurately. 

First of all, then, plot the ten sets of figures. Two or three curves 
can be drawn on the same sheet of paper. Use the regular coordinate 
paper. Count one square as equal to lo units of your data on your 
vertical axis, thus giving you a maximum of 500 units. On your hori- 
zontal axis indicate a trial at every line. Consider all records over 500 
units as equal to 500 and plot them accordingly. 

Now from a study of your curves and your table ascertain whether 
all ten agree or disagree on the following points : — 

1. Do they show improvement with practice? 

2. Do they show the same initial efficiency? 

3. Do they show the same final efficiency? 

4. Is a greater gain made during tlie first live trials than (i^a-ir.^ 

the last five ? 

5. Is progress regular or irregular? 

6. Do all curves show an equal gain? 

Back up each of your assertions with proof from your data. 

Second, if we should arrange the ten individuals according to their 
initial ability in this performance we would have them in this order : — 
B(76), 1(129), J(i3i), C(2io), E(2i6), A(232), 0(283), F(286), 
^(363), and H(70i). Copy this order onto a sheet of paper so that 
the letters will appear in a column one under the other. Now arrange 
the ten individuals according to their final ability in this performance 
in a similar column. Study the relationship between the two columns 
of letters and then decide whether individuals who are best at the start 
are best at the end or not. Does your conclusion hold good for all ten 
or for only the majority? If you have exceptions to your rule, can you 
explain why there should be these exceptions ? Make a further compar- 
ison (a) between the order of proficiency at the start and the order at 
the tenth trial, and (b) between the order at the tenth trial and the 
order at the last trial. 

Do )'^ou think that B, who is best at the start and fourth at the tv.d. 
and I, who was second at the start and third at the end, will do better. 
equal to, or poorer than D and H in arithmetic, geography, running a 
grocery store, or driving a plow? Explain. What significance, if any, 
do you think there is in the superiority of B and I over D and H ia this 
performance? How would G compare in these respects with the four 
(i. e., B, I, Dand H?) 

Hand m your report at the next class-hour, written up in the usual 
mannw. 



LESSON 22. INTRODUCTION TO THE GENERAL SUBJECT 
OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES* 

Individuals differ very materially with respect to every human trait. 
If we compare them with respect to height, or weight, or muscular 
strength, or lung capacity, or eyesight, or hearing, or color of hair, or 
spelling ability, or musical ability, or inventive power, or any other 
trait, we find that they all differ from one another in these respects. 
When one is at first confronted with all these differences one is very 
a['t to become utterly confused and feel that there is no order at all in 
this chaos of human differences. The person who is the tallest is not 
always the heaviest. In fact, he may be very thin and weigh compara- 
tiveh' little. The person who has the best eyesight may have any color 
of hair and may have very good or very poor hearing. The musician 
may also be a poet or he may be unable to express himself very clearly 
in any way except on his musical instrument. 

Still as we progress in our study of these differences we come to see 
that all is not chaos, that there is some system underlying the matter. 
As yet science has worked out but few of the great laws involved. But 
a start has been made, and already we have been helped in understand- 
ing the peculiarities of our friends and pupils. 

There is no more important subject for the teacher in psychology 
than this subject of individual differences. If we were all alike then 
teaching would be a comparatively easy subject. We would need to 
know just the physical, mental, and moral di nensions and require- 
ments of the standard and then devise one set of methods which would 
fit in every case and inevitably produce good spellers, writers, etc. But 
people are not alike. And this fact means that no one method will 
work with every individual. Methods of teaching when applied to 
certain children will produce the desired result and when applied to 
other children will produce no result worth while or possibly just the 
opposite result from that desired. Undoubtedly some of the children 
who fail in the 4th Grade fail because the wrong methods were ap- 
plied to them. If other methods had been applied some of these fail- 
ures would have succeeded but, on the other hand, some of those who 
succeeded would then have failed. What is needed today is that 
teachers become expert in understanding the differences in children 



»CL\SS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE UP 


READ 


22 
23 


Discuss, Lesson 2 1 
Exper. Lesson 23 


Lesson 23 


Lesson 22 



103 



I04 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHI^RS 

and so be able to apply inteiligentiy varying methods to varying needs. 
Without doubt the teacher of the future is going to become a diagnos- 
tician in much the same way that a physician is. The latter studies 
symptoms, diagnoses the diseases, prescribes the treatment, and if he 
is fortunate, directs that treatment until the patient is cured. The 
teacher of the future will be one who will understand the peculiarities 
of children and on the basis of these peculiarities or differences, diag- 
nose the reason as to why the child is not developing properly, pre- 
scribe the treatment, and carry it out to a successful end. This is 
exactly what is now being attempted in our special classes for the de- 
fective. And altho possibly it is easier to do this with defectives than 
with normal children, yet society cannot permit the poorest and most 
worthless one-tenth of our children to have a better type of teaching 
than that given to the remainder, who will have to carry not only their 
own burdens, but also a large share of the burdens of the defective 
class. 

Now let us turn and consider such facts and principles as we can 
discover concerning individual differences. 

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, BASED ON MIRROR-DRAWlNG EXPERIMENT 

It is very clear from a study of the learning curves of the tea indi- 
viduals recorded in Lesson 21 that they all agree in that: — 

1. They show improvement with practice. 

2. They make greater gain at the start than at the end of the practice. 

3. They progress irregularly, i. e., they do not always advance but 
sometimes do more poorly than in the preceding trial. We shall find 
after studying many examples of learning that these three facts remain 
true. Even tho individuals differ tremendously, yet they do not diflfer 
as regards these respects. Continued practice does produce improve- 
ment in a performance in the long run, hut it may not be apparent" 
ivken two or three or even more successive trials are alone cotnpared. 
Improvement is also greater at the start of practice than at the end. 

On the other hand, individuals differ as regards: — 

1. Initial efficiency. 

2. Final efficiency. 

3. Amount of improvement. 

This is clear from the data in Table IV. It will be found to be true 
when any set of data is studied. 

THE USE OF THE AVERAGE AS A MEASURE OF A GROUP 

We can obtain an average from the records of a large or smaM num- 
ber of individuals. Such an average record is given in the last column 
of Table IV. W'I'-r; \vc ?xvAy this average record from ten individual? 
we realize that it is the best expression possible of the entire ten rec- 



LESSON 22 105 

ords. But it is not typical of what any one person would do. No one 
of the ten did the mirror-drawing in 263 units (of time and accuracy 
combined). The nearest to this record was F, who did the experiment 
in 286 units, differing thereby from the average by 23 units. On the 
other hand, B (the best of the ten) beat this average by 187 units, and 
H (the poorest of the ten) was poorer than the average by 438 units. 
Clearly a great many interesting facts are covered up or lost by re- 
ferring to the average as an expression of what this group of ten in- 
dividuals could do. By knowing only that the group averaged 263 
units for its first trial we would have no knowledge of how much the 
ten had differed or varied from each other. 

We have come also to realize that any individual learning curve is 
not perfectly smooth but has a great variety of fluctuations in it. In 
other words, altho a person may be progressing, his successive perform- 
ances may not necessarily show this. Sometimes he gains, sometimes 
he loses, but on the whole he is advancing. Now our average record 
of the ten individuals in the mirror-drawing experiment is singularly 
free from such fluctuations. Only twice does the curve rise and then 
only for slight amounts. From a study of the average curve we would 
be led to the false notion that improvement is very steady and even. 
But such, we realize, is not the case. Evidently, then, the average, 
altho very useful, is not a sufficient measure of a class performance to 
tell us all that we need to know about that class. 

Consider another example taken from a survey of the Demonstration 
School of George Peabody College for Teachers.-'- 

All of the children in Grades IV to VIII were tested with the Kansas 
Silent Reading Test. This test consists of a number of paragraphs like 
the following: — 

NO. I 
VALUE The air near the ceiling of a room is warm, while that on the 

i.o floor is cold. Two boys are in the room, James on the floor and 

Harry on a box eight feet high. Which boy has the warmer pia-e? 



NO. 2 
VALUE If gray is darker than white and black is darker than gray, what 

1.3 color of those named in this sentence is lighter than gray? 



NO. 3 
VALUE We can see through glass, so we call it transparent. We cannot 

1.6 see through iron, so we call it opaque. Is black ink opaque, or is it 

transparent ? 



•C. C. Demmy, "The Peabody Demonstration School in the Light of Standard Tests." 
Unpablished thesis in the library of George Peabody College for Teachers. 



106 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

The children are allowed five minutes in which to read over as man}' 
of these paragraphs as they can and to execute the directions in each. 
They are scored in terms of the paragraphs to which they have cor- 
rectly reacted, each paragraph counting proportionately to its deter- 
mined difficulty or value. 

In Table V are presented the average scores of the five grades, to- 
gether with the norms for those grades. A norm is a standard set for 
a grade after testing thousands of children so as to know exact!}'' what 
the average is. From these figures it is clear that with respect to this 
method of testing silent reading the children in the five grades are su- 
perior to children thruout the country, as in all the grades except VII 
the average of the grade is superior to the norm and in Grade VII the 
figures are equal to the norm. 

TABLE V. AVERAGE SCORES AND NORMS, GRADES IV TO VIII 

Kansas Silent Reading Scale. 
GRADES IV V VI VII VIII 

AVERAGES 13.0 15.7 16.8 16.5 23.4 

NORMb 9.4 13.4 13.8 16.5 19.2 

As has been said the scores "show the school to be in most excellent 
condition." However, if this is all that the class-room teacher is to 
learn from the test, the very knowledge that should enable her to give 
her pupils, as individuals, the best possible instruction will have been 
missed. The scores, in rank order, of all the pupils in the various 
grades are shown in Table VI. The data given in this table show 
some astounding individual differences. For instance, the lowest score 
in the fourth grade is less than one-sixth of the highest score in the 
same grade ; 60% of all the pupils in the fourth grade made a better 
score than the poorest score in the eighth grade; 17% of all the pupils 
in the fourth grade made a better score than the norm for the eighth 
grade ; while all the pupils, except six, in the fourth grade made a bet- 
ter score than the lowest score in the seventh grade. In general, the 
highest score made in each grade is approximately 200% of the norm 
for that grade ; while in three grades, IV, V, and VII, the lowest score 
is less than half the norm. 

"Since reading is fundamental and basic to most of the other studies 
in the school, this wide variation in individual scores indicates the com- 
plexity of the problem confronting the class-room teacher. Why did 
the poorest fourth grade pupil make only a score of 3.9, and the best 
one make 24 ? Is one endowed by nature with six times as much read- 
ing power as the other? Did the form and manner of instruction in 
reading fit one six times as well as the other? Or is the wide difference 
due to other causes ? The facts of Table VI raise innumerable admin- 
istrative problems. If the school is to be organized so that each indi- 







LESSON 


22 






107 


TABLE VI. INDIVIDUAL 


SCORES 


BY RANK 


ORDER, 


GRADES 






IV TO VIII 










Kansas Silent Readi 


ng Test. 










GRADES 








Pu^l 


IV 


V 




VI 


VII 


VIII 


I 


24.0 


28.1 




34-6 


32.6 


34.6 


2 


21.7 


254 




32.2 


28.3 


34.6 


3 


20.3 


23.3 




26.3 


24.1 


31.6 


4 


19.9 


22.3 




24.0 


22.3 


31.6 


5 


19.7 


22.3 




234 


21.3 


30.3 


6 


18.4 


21.4 




22.5 


20.7 


28.3 


7 


16.7 


21.4 




22.3 


20.0 


27.3 


8 


16.7 


19.7 




21.0 


19-3 


36.3 


9 


15.5 


19-3 




20.1 


18.5 


22.3 


10 


151 


18.4 




19.1 


17.7 


21.7 


II 


15-0 


18.3 




18.4 


17.7 


20.7 


12 


14.8 


17.3 




18. 1 


177 


19.7 


13 


14.4 


17.1 




17-5 


174 


18.6 


14 


13-4 


16.1 




16. 1 


17.1 


18.4 


IS 


I3-I 


16. 1 




14.8 


16. 1 


154 


i6 


12.8 


15.8 




14.8 


15-8 


13.8 


17 


12.8 


154 




144 


15-7 


13.0 


i8 


12.5 


134 




14.4 


15-1 


12.3 


19 


11.3 


134 




14-3 


14.1 




2« 


1 1.2 


12.9 




13.8 


13.2 




21 


10.4 


12.6 




13-5 


11.5 




2.2 


9.0 


12.4 




134 


1 1.2 




23 


9.0 


12.4 




13.2 


10.6 




24 


8.9 


12.2 




12.8 


10.6 




25 


6.2 


II. 7 




II. I 


8.8 




26 


6.2 


10.6 




10.9 


8.8 




27 


6.2 


10.6 




10.7 


8.8 




28 


6.2 


8.9 




9.1 


8.1 




29 


5.7 


8.7 




8.5 






3« 


3-9 


8.5 




8.4 






31 




8.5 




8.1 






32 




6.3 










Average 


13.0 


f5-7 




16.8 


16.S 


234 



vidual pupil may get maximal good from the instruction given, teacher, 
principal, superintendent, school board, and community must realize 
this wide variation and cooperate in the organization and administra- 
tion of a system which takes individual differences into consideration." 

THE use OF THE A. D. AS A MEASURE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. 

We have seen thus far that the average is not a sufficient measure for 
presenting the proficiency of a group of individuals. And in Lesson 20 
some of the advantages of the average deviation were presented. The 
subject warrants further consideration. 

The average of the initial trials in the case of the ten individuals re- 
corded in Table IV is 263; the average deviation is 118. The average 
of the final trials is 55 and the average deviation 12. Knowing the 
A. D. as well as the average for the initial and final trials in the mirror- 
drawing experiment we can readily determine, if we do not have the 



Io8 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY I'OR TEACHERS 

original data, that there was a very great variation in the individ- 
uals at the start, and still considerable difference in their proficiency 
at the end of the practice. We know that the ten individuals differed 
on the average ii8 units from the average of 263 units. We know now 
for certain that the average does not represent what all ten individuals 
did. Far from it. Some must have varied above and below 263 by 
more than 118 in order that the average of all the deviations should 
be 118. On the other hand we can tell, by knowing that the final trial 
averaged 55 with an A. D. of 12, that the ten must all be fairly close to 
the average, probably none varying more than three times the A. D. or 
by more than 36. That is, no record would probably be better than 
19(55—36) or poorer than 91(55+36). (As an actual fact among 56 
men and women the best record has been 33(55 — 2 times the A. D.) 
and the poorest was 118(55+5 times the A. D.) But there are onlv two 
records in the 56 which are poorer than three times the A. D., (i. e., 
91) — one being the 118 already referred to and the other being 93}. 

In a similar way the A. D. may be determined for the data in Table 
VI concerning the silent reading ability of children in the five grades. 
We then have : — 

Av. Score, Silent Reading. Grade IV 13.0 A. D. 4.2 

" V. 15.7 " 4.5 

" VI. 16.8 " 5.3 

" 'II. 16.5 " 4.5 

" VII I._ 23.4 " 6.4 

The presence of these average deviations helps us considerably in 

estimating how much the various children in the two classes differ from 

their average. 

The more one uses this measure — the A. D. — the more it conie^^ eo 
mean ; but still it never does tell as much as one can tell from the original 
data themselves when displayed in table form as in Table VL 

RELATIONSHIP OE INITIAL AND FINAL ABILITY. 

V'/hen the ten individuals are arranged in "order of merit" according 
to initial and final ability it is clear that on the whole those who are best 
at the start are best at the end. G is markedly an exception to the 
rule, starting at sixth place and ending first. H also gains four places, 
progressing from tenth to sixth place. G was actually a student of 
markediy superior ability, but noted for awkwardness of movement. 
He tackled the experiment with misgivings of his ability to do it, 
thinking it was largely a feat of arm movement. He learned very 
rapidly and surprised himself with his performance. 

Knowing nothing of these ten individuals but their initial scores, 
it would be safer to hire the first two to work in a store or on a farm, 
or to gamble on their scholastic record that on the last two. This is true. 



LESSON 23 109 

because the test does measure general ability to some extent. But be- 
cause the test is far from a perfect measure of ability, individuals hired 
on the basis of it would not always come up to expectations. This we 
see in the case of G, who, on the basis of the final score, is better ihan 
either B or I. 

LESSON 23.— HOW DO DIFFERENT GROUPS OF INDIVID- 
UALS DIFFER WITH RESPECT TO THEIR LEARNING 
SIMPLE ARITHMETICAL COMBINATIONS? 

In Lessons 21 and 22 we made a preliminary study of individual 
differences as displayed in mirror-drawing. In this lesson we shall 
devote our attention to how individuals differ in the simplest processes 
of arithmetic, i. e., simple addition and simple multiplication. Some of 
the questions involved are: — How do I differ from other adults in a 
working knowledge of the multiplication table? Am I more or less 
rapid in my work than the average adult ? Am I more or less accurate 
than the average adult? How do adults differ from children in these 
respects? How do children differ among themselves? Besides ascer- 
taining some of the facts in these cases, we shall commence to ask 
ourselves the further question. — what is the cause of these differences? 

First of all the members of the laboratory section will use the B- 
Test blank, on which appears eighty simple problems in addition, such 

4 I 
as 7 3, etc. The class will be given one minute in which to do as 

many of these problems as they can do. After that the class will be 
tested as to their proficiency in multiplication, using the BX-Test 
blank. The papers will then be scored and the averages and average 
deviations of the two tests worked out for the class. When that is 
finished the laboratory pairs will proceed as usual by themselves, tak- 
ing up the various parts of the assignment in order and doing as much 
as they can during the remainder of the hour. As each part is fin- 
ished it will be advisable for the members of the class to consult with 
the laboratory instructor in order to make sure that they have under- 
stood the instructions and have executed them properly. 

PART I. PROBLEM. HOW DO ADULTS DIFFER AS TO THEIR ABILITY TO, 
SOLVE SIMPLE ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION PROBLEMS? 

Apparatus. A B-Test and a BX-Test Blank, watch. 

Procedure. When all in the laboratory section are ready, turn face 
down the page on which the B-Test is given. The instructor will give 
two signals, "Get Ready," and "Go." At the latter signal, turn the 



no INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEIACHESS 

sheet over and solve as many problems as you can during the one 
minute allowed you. At the signal, "Stop,'' stop your work wherever 
you are and hold up your right hand, so that the instructor can have 
visible proof that you have actually stopped. (These instructions you 
will undoubtedly have cause to use later on yourself, as a teacher. 
You now have an opportunity to know how it feels to take a test of 
this sort.) 

Trade papers with some other member of the class. The in- 
structor will then call out the correct answers to the addition problems. 
Every mistake on the paper before you should be indicated by drawing 
a conspicuous circle around it. Indicate at the top of the page the 
total number of problems performed, the number incorrect, and the 
number correct. A convenient form for doing this is, "65 — 3=62," 
or "60 — 0=60," where the first number indicates the number per- 
formed, the second the number wrong, and the third the number correct. 

Return the papers to their owners, who then may look them over 
to see if they have been corrected properly. In case of a controversy the 
scorer should be the final judge. Ambiguously written figures should 
be scored against. 

Repeat the above with the BX-Test blank to test ability in simple 
multiplication. 

Results. The instructor will now record the data of the two tests 
on the board and with the aid of the class determine the averages and 
average deviations of the class. Any errors characteristic of the class 
should also be recorded. 

Interpretation and Application. Combine into one general discussion 
at the close of your report the interpretations and applications to this 
problem and those that follow. 



I^ESSON 23 III 

B TEST— ADDITION 

Name Age Grade 

3 o 3 1)1 12 9 7 6 j4 2 

II 827408581 

8 5 8 12 69 2 II 12 o 

i£^ _^_li^_^l°_l L 2. 

I 10 4967 12 I 76 

8 7 12 1 6 3 9 4 12 I 

7649 10 2 I 10 85 

211 7 .6 3 6 9 6 3 10 



e 


8 


t 


S 


9 


e 


I 


01 


8 





_3. 


4 


10 


II 


_3^ 


2 


_5_ 


J_ 


_5_ 


6 


II 


7 





9 


II 


4 


8 


5 


8 


6 


_4 


^ 


II 


10 


IS 





8 


4 


_9 


2 


3 


10 


3 





12 


I 


9 


I 


4 


5 


12 


I 


_7_ 


2 


8 


_5_ 


_9^ 





9 






13 


5 


2 


II 


2 





2 


4 


10 


a 


II 


9 


2 


8 


5 


12 


II 


4 


II 


9 



112 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY I-GR TEACIIEKS 

BX-TEST— MULTIPLICATION 
Name Age Grade , 



303 II 12 9764 2 

11 827408581 



8 


5 


8 


12 


6 


9 


2 


4 

II 


12 





12 


I 





__5_ 


10 


_5_ 


10 


3 


I 


2. 



I 


ID 


4 


9 


6 


7 


12 


I 


7 


6 


8 


- 7 


12 


I 


6 


3 


9 


4 


12 


I 


._ 


--— 


'~~~ 




■ 






-. 




~ 


7 


6 


4 


9 


10 


2 


I 


10 


8 


5 


2 


II 


7 


6 


3 


6 


_9 


6 


3 


10 





8 


10 


7 


3 


6 


5 


4 


8 


3 


3 


4 


10 


II 


3 


2 


5 


3 


5 


6 



li 


7 





9 


II 


4 


8 


5 


8 


b 


4 


_7 


II 


10 


II 





8 


4 


_9 


^ 


3 


10 


3 





12 


I 


9 


I 


4 


5 


12 


I 


_7 


2 


8 


_5_ 


^ 





_9 





12 


5 


2 


II 


2 





2 


4 


10 


' 2 


II 


9_ 


2 


8 


i- 


12 


I 


4 


II 


9_ 



I 




59 


2 




67 


3 




69 


' 4 




69 


5 




71 


6 




72 


7 




74 


8 




75 


9 




75 


10 




76 


TI 






12 






13 






14 






Note : 


The 


childr 



LESSON 23 113 

PART 2 — PROBLEM. HOW DO ADULTS DIFFER FROM 4TH GRADE CHILDREN 

IN THEIR ABILITY TO SOLVE SIMPLE MULPLICATION 

AND ADDITION PROBLEMS? 

Apparatus. The data in Table VII. 

TABLE VII. SHOWING AVERAGE NUMBER OF ADDITION AND 

MULTIPLICATION PROBLEMS SOLVED CORRECTLY IN ONE 

WIKUTE BY ADULTS AND 4TH GRADE CHILDREN IN 

10 (AND 14) TRIALS ON DIFFERENT DAYS. 

ADDITION (B-Test) MULTIPLICATION (BX-Test) 

Trials Adults 4th Grade Adults 4th Grade 

Child i en Children 

19 40 II 

21 50 15 

22 52 ~ 10 

23 55 17 

25 58 19 

26 61 20 

27 61 21 * 

28 62 21 

29 64 23 

30 64 M 

31 25 

32 .26 

32 - 27 

33 28 
The children were allowed two minutes instead of one 

minute to work at the blank. Their records are expressed in terms of 

what they did in i minute i. e., half of their 2-minute record. 

Procedure and Results. Plot these data. Arrange your vertical 

scale so that it will extend from o to 80. Connect the points on the 

addition curves with a solid line, and the points on the multiplication 

curves with a dotted line. 

PART 3 — PROBLEM. HOW DO NORMAL 4TH GRADE CHILDREN DIFFER FROM 
BADLY RETARDED CHILDREN OF THE SAME AGE IN THEIR ABILITY TO 
f SOLVE SIMPLE AI?DITI0N PROBLEMS? 

Apparatus. The data in Table VII and the following information : — 
A class of 2B Grade children were tested by Miss M. Phillips with the 
B-Test. These children averaged 9^/^ years, (just what our 4th Grade 
averages). They had, repeated the*work of the first and second grades 
several times and were considered by the authorities to be practically 
hopeless. They were put (i) thru the B-Test on ten successive days; 
(2) thru the C-Test (identical to the B-Test except for the combina- 
tions which were new) on ten more days; (3) given 10 minutes drill 
on 15 successive days on the problems of the B-Test; and (4) again 
given the B-Test for 10 successive days. Parts (2) and (3) represent 
170 minutes drill devoted to simple addition problems distributed over 
25 days. The average records of the class in parts (i) and (4) with 
the B-Test are as follows : — 



114 


INTRODUCTORY 


PSYCHOLOGY 


I'OR TEACHERS 






Trials 

I 






Part I 
4 










Part 4 

7 


2 






5 










8 


3 






5 










8 


4 






5 










9 


5 






6 










9 


6 






6 










lO 


7 






6 










lO 


8 






6 










lO 


9 






7 










31 


10 






7 










II 


Procedure, 


£/c. 


Handle these data 


as 


in Part 2. 


Bear 


in 


mind that 


the averages 


(i. 


e., norms) 


for the 


Demonstration School 


! and for 


adiiUs were ; 


as follows: — 















GRADES 


NORMS IN ADDITION 


NORMS 


IN MULTIPLICATION 






{B-Test) 






(BX-Test) 






Oct 


., 1915 Feb., 1917 




Oct., 1915 


Feb., 1917 


III 




— 


IS 




— 


6 


IV 




19 


29 




II 


20 


V 




26 


37 




17 


26 


VI 




— 


40 






25 


VII 




i8 


44 




27 


27 


VIII 




20 


43 




30 


30 


IX 




— 


49 




— 


30 


Adults 




59 


59 




40 


40 



The differences in the norms on the two different dates is due, first 
to the fact that in the second case the grades had had three months 
more schooling by February than in October am!, second, to the fact 
that during the interval a considerable amount of time was spent in the 
school speeding the children up. That this was very much nce.(\e<.\ is 
clearly apparent from the figures. In justice to the Demonstration 
School it should be noted here that the first set of norms was taken very 
shortly after the opening of the school and the poor work represented 
the training these children had received prior to entering the school. 

Procedure atid Results. Plot the learning curves of the mentally de- 
fective children on the same graph as your other curves. 

Note : In these experiments the same blank was used each day. 
Some of the learning consists in more or less learning of answers in a 
regular order. If a different arrangement of the little problems had been 
presented each time, the curves would not have gone up so rapidly. 

Interpretation of the three parts to this problem. What do you de- 
duce as to how various classes of individuals differ with respect to 
learning simple addition and multiplication combinations ? Have these 
three groups of individuals become more or less alike as the result of 
ten days' practice? What effect has this fact upon our present plan of 
school administration? 

Application. Hand in your report at the next class-hour. 



LESSON 24. THE THREE CAUSES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFER- 
ENCES—ENVIRONMENT, HEREDITY, AND TRAINING* 

We have noted already that all individuals are alike in that they 
profit by practice; that they show greater gain at the beginning of 
practice than at any later time; and that the rate of improvement is 
irregular, an individual showing remarkable gains with certain trials 
and equally surprising "slumps" with other trials. We have also noted 
that individuals do differ as to (i) initial performance, (2) final per- 
formance, and (3) the amount of improvement resulting from any 
given amount of practice. Let us now consider these differences in 
greater detail. 

ENVIRONMENT, HEREDITY AND TRAINING 

A human being may be thought of, first of all, as being produced by 
the two factors — heredity and environment. He is a living organism 
that reacts to the situations that confront him in life. The situations 
(environment) are the immediate cause of his reactions — they initiate 
the reaction but they do not condition that reaction. In other words, 
the environment brings about reactions but what those reactions are 
are determined by the laws of the organism itself. What a person does 
during any day of his life is determined by his environment, then, and 
by his innate life. If it is summer time and there is a swimming hole 
in the vicinity, he may or may not go swimming. If there is no other 
factor in his environment, such as a dance, to lead him to do otherwise, 
he quite likely will go swimming. Yet he may not. Some individuals 
do not respond to swimming situations by going in swimming. Their 
natures are so constituted that they do not receive pleasure from such 
experience and so do not seek it. One of the writer's boyhood friends 
— the best pitcher in town — never went swimming. He didn't enjoy 
it. Take another example from real life. A German boy, the son of 
a brewer, living in a German community, never drank beer. Such 
a situation, as confronted him daily, would lead most individuals to 
drink beer. But he didn't. He did not like it, so he didn't drink. In 
the Holmgren test for color blindness one is given a hundred or more 
different colored skeins of yarn. He is then given a large skein of 
red yarn and told to pick out all the little skeins of similar color. The 
ordinary individual picks out only red skeins. But a color-blind person 
picks out not only red but also brown and gray skeins. And if there 



•CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE UP 


READ 


24 
25 


Discuss, Lesson 23 
Exper. Lesson 25 


Lesson 25 


Lesson 24 



"5 



Il6 INTUOOUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

happens to be a green skein of the same brightness as his red standard 
he will pick this out also. The same situation leads to two quite dif- 
ferent reactions here. The reactions are different because of the dif- 
ference in the development of the eyes of the two individuals. The 
eyes of one individual are so constituted that red and green are dis- 
tinguished apart ; the eyes of the other individual are so constituted 
that red, gray, and brown, and even a green, with the correct brightness 
appear alike. We may say then again, that the situation (environment) 
is the cause of a reaction, but the innate make-up of the individual 
(heredity) determines just what the reaction shall be. 

In the case of our mirror-drawing experiment, the situation was the 
same for all ten individuals, but their reactions differed very materially. 
Some were very accurate and quick in reacting, some were accurate 
and slow, some were inaccurate but quick, and some were inaccurate 
and slow. At first thought we might imagine that the individual dif- 
ferences in this experiment were all due to heredity, since the situation 
was alike for the ten individuals. But such a statement is not so exact 
as we shall desire here. Suppose one of the ten individuals had prac- 
ticed with the apparatus at some previous time. Would it then be fair 
to say that he did better than the others simply because of heredity? 
Certainly not. We must then introduce a third factor into the dis- 
cussion — the factor of training. Training may be thought of in this 
connection as the habits the individual has accumulated from previous 
experiences in life. Every time we react to a situation we add a new 
element to our mental make-up. And so we may think of ourselves as 
being made up of pure hereditary influences plus habitual influences. 
How we react, then, toward the swimming hole situation is dependent 
(i) upon the entire situation comprising swimming hole, dancing 
possibilities, etc.; (2) upon our original nature given us by heredity, 
and (3) upon the sum total of our experiences in life, our training. 
This factor of training is, of course, a mixture of heredity and pre- 
vious environment which now affects the organism's reaction to his 
immediate environment. 

Consider the case of a baby who has commenced to talk and al- 
ready knows a "goose" but no other bird, and the word "dress" but 
none other to designate clothing. Standing on the porch one day, she 
observes a pigeon up above her preening its feathers. Finally a 
feather drops out and flutters to her feet. She picks it up and holding 
it out to her mother to admire, exclaims, "Goose's dress." The re- 
action, "Goose's dress," is then initiated by the feather falling at her 
feet. Original nature is responsible for her responding to the small 
object by picking it up, also by desiring to talk about it. But previous 



LESSON 24 



117 



training determines that the particular words that are used are words 
already learned. All three factors contribute then to the reaction. 
IVhat we do at any moment in life is due to the interplay of these three 
factors: (i) the situation confronting us — (2) our own original nature 
inherited from our ancestors, and (^) our own acquired habits, the re- 
sult of previous experiences. 

Before considering the indivdual differences which we have dis- 
covered in the mirror-drawing experiment, or the simple arithmetical 
work, in the light of these three factors, one point needs to be cleared 
up which may puzzle some. 

LEARNING CURVES BASED ON "TIME" VERSUS THOSE BASED ON 

"amount done." 
In the mirror-drawing learning curves, as one progressed, his curve 
came down; in the arithmetic test, as one improved, his curve went 
up. luis difference is due to the fact that in the mirror-drawing ex- 
periment the results were recorded in terms of time (seconds), while 
in the arithmetic tests the results were recorded in terms of amount 
done. Improvement shows itself either by a decrease in time for doing 







Tritit 



TritU 



Plat« Til. Learning ourvea of 4th gradtt ohildr«n In mltlplloatloa. 
Ths left hand onxT* shows \h» nonber of problems solved in tm mlii- 
utoa OS 16 different teys* The right hand oram shows the areMgs 
time required to do a slnj;lc problem on the 16 different dagrs. Ta» 
fomer reeords progrese In aacTint done, the latter In tl— oypiiaet. 



Il8 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

the same task (as in the mirror-drawing experiment) or by an increase 
in what is accomplished in the same work-period (as in the arithmetic 
tests). Now either of these curves can be transmuted so as to appear 
iti the other form. Take, for example, the curve of learning of the 
4lh Grade children in multiplication (shown in the left hand curve of 
Plate VII). Here we see that the children performed ii problems 
correctly on the first occasion, 15.5 problems on the second, etc. They 
accomplished that much in 60 seconds. At that rate it required 5.5 
seconds to do one problem on the first occasion (i. e., 60-4-11=5.5) ; 
3.9 seconds to do one problem on the second occasion (i. e., 
60-4-15.5=3.9) ; etc. When these quotients are plotted for the 
trials we obtain the right hand curve in Plate VII. The two curves, 
then, both record the same facts, altho one goes up and the other 
comes down. With a little practice in thinking in terms of curves this 
seeming paradox will no longer bother one. 

EXPLANATION OE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN TERMS OF "hEREDITY" 

AND "training." 

In the case of the mirror-drawing experiment, or the simple arith- 
metical work, the situation is the same for all the individuals. All the 
individuals are confronted with the same apparatus or the same blank 
of 80 problems. In one sense this is not strictly true, as we have al- 
ready seen, since diflFerent individuals respond to different details in 
the entire situation. But these differences are not due to actual physi- 
cal differences in the situation, but rather to differences in the indi- 
viduals themselves. We may then properly speak of the situations con- 
fronting the individuals as being exactly the same in all ten cases. It 
then remains to explain the differences we find among the ten indi- 
viduals in terms of "original nature" or "training." 

The Effect of Previous Training. We have learned that all indi- 
viduals show greater improvement at the commencement of practice 
Aan at the end. This being the case the learning curves of those who 
hewe had no previous practice ivill rise more rapidly and slozv up more 
gradually than in the case of those ivho have had previous practice.' 

This fact may be illustrated in Plate VIII by saying that the person 
who has had no previous practice (training) would have the learning 
curve marked B. The person with previous training might have in- 
stead a curve similar to A. The former's curve would show very 
marked gains at the start and would show a large improvement alto- 
gether. The latter's curve would not show such a marked gain at the 
start and would not show such a large total improvement. We may 
think of A's curve as not being complete — that the first 15 trials are 
not shown here (having been performed before) and that what is 



LESSON 24 



119 



represented is trials 16 to 41. This is on the assumption that A and B 
are exactly identical in every respect. This is further shown in the 
two curves by representing B's progress in trials 16 to 26 as exactly 




Plate VIII. Showljig l»»ralng munras of two IndlTldii&ls 
«ho ara idantioal In all raspaots save in the amaont 
of trainlBs in the arlthmatloal aombtnatlons. 

equal to A's progress in trials i to 11. And if the curves were con- 
tinued, B's progress in trials 26 to 41 would be identical to A's records 
in trials 11 to 26. Previous trainitig, then affects an individual's learn- 
ing curve by raising its starting-point and by eliminating to some ex- 
tent at least the ordinary big rise at the start. 

It was stated above that B would show apparently greater improve- 
ment than A. The word "apparently" should be emphasized. Plate 
VIII is so drawn as to indicate that altho B's curve shows a greater 
gain than A's curve when measured in terms of improvement in prob- 
lems performed correctly (i. e., 5 problems to 33.0 problems as against 



I20 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TE;aCH5;RS 

29.2 problems to 35.9 problems) yet in terms of number of trials B 
has not gained over A. He started out 15 trials behind and remained 
T5 trials behind to the end. If B's curve were extended for 15 trials 
more it would then reach the point reached by A at his 41st trial — the 
end of his practice period. It is an extremely difficult matter to meas- 
ure relative improvement in terms of time or amount of work done, 
because as one approaches his limit each unit of effort will produce a 
smaller and smaller gain in time saved or work accomplished.' 

The Effect of Differences in Hereditary Bndozvmeiif. How do differ- 
ences in sheer hereditary endowment affect learning curves? Plate IX 
illustrates this point. The individual with the best endowment will 
show the greatest improvement, the person with the least endowment 
will show the least improvement. Curves B, C, and D represent the 
learning curves of three persons ; curve B being the curve of the best 
endowed, curve C being of a poorer endowed person, and curve D be- 
ing of the poorest endowed person of the three. The better the original 
nature of the individual the greater zvill be the improvement resulting 
from practice. These three individuals with equal training and varying 
degrees of hereditary endowment would not even do equally well, of 
course, on the first trial, because the better endowed person would do 
better than the others right from the start. 

One warning should be given here. The degree of efficiency of the 
original nature of the individual must be considered as it applies to 
the particular task being tested. For example, a great musician (hav- 
ing superior original nature in musical lines) may not necessarily have 
superior endowment in mirror-drawing. The musician's curve in 
mirror-drawing will show great improvement or not ; depending not 
upon endowment in general, but upon the endowment which he has 
that pertains to mirror-drawing. 

The Effect of Differences in Training and Heredity Combined. Now 
let us consider, third, some combinations of these two factors. We 
may have four individuals, (i) A having good heredity and previous 
training, (2) B having good heredity but no previous training, (3) 
E having poor heredity and previous training, and (4) D having poor 
heredity and no previous training. (Poor heredity is to be under- 
stood as endowment having to do with the trait under discussion ; 
training to be considered in terms of so many units of time devoted to 
learning specific material.) Then their learning curves would take 
more or less the forms illustrated in Plate X. A and E can be thought 
of as having had 15 units of instruction, and B and D as having had 

( I ) This point i3 discussed further in the writer's monograph. Effects of Hookworm 
Disease on the Mental and Physical Development of Children. International Health 
Commission, 1916, pp. 22-39. 



le;sson 24 



121 



iVN-iKr »» rrtbkms 




Tr'fU 



Plato VS.. Showiag iMuming eurras of thr«« IndiritnalB 
wia fiiff»r«nt fc<i*«dltary •ndownaata. 

none. As B is superior to D by hereditary endowment he will do better 
than the latter at the start and will rapidly leave him behind. (See 
Plate IX, where this point is alone considered.) The more training 
they receive the more different will they become as far as this trait is 
considered, because of the difference in their ability. In the same way 
A and E, who have had some previotis training become more and more 
unlike as they continue their training. These curves illustrate, then, the 
principle that continued training makes individuals of different heredi- 
tary endowment more and more unlike. We shall return to this point 
a little later. 

The curves of A and B are symmetrical. A's curve actually being 
the same as B's from the latter's i6th trial on to what would be his 41st 
trial. The curves of E and D are also symmetrical in the same way. 
Because of their previous training A and E will maintain their supe- 



122 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

riority over B and D, respectively. This superiority seemingly grows 
smaller and smaller with practice. It actually does if measured in 
terms of problems performed, but it does not if measured in 
terms of effort, for A always remains ahead of B to the extent of what 
15 units of time will produce, and likewise E remains ahead of D to that 
extent. 

The difference between the good heredity of A and B and the 
poor heredity of E and D is meant to be a considerable difference. Yet 
it is not exaggerated at all in comparison with the differences found in 
most any class room. The differences between the average of the 
4th Grade and the group of retarded children is about equal to that 
shown here between A and E. In Plate XI are shown the curves of a 
child from the 4th Grade and another from the retarded group. The 
former is not the brightest in that grade (actually rated nth in a class 
of 28) and the latter is not the dullest among these unfortunate chil- 
dren. The retarded child's record was, o problems, 0,0.0, 1,0, i, 2, 2, 2, 
and after 170 minutes drill, 5, 5, and 4. Here measles intervened to 
spoil our record. In fairness to the records it should be stated that 
undoubtedly the 4th Grade child practiced on these combinations out- 
side of school. But the dull child had also this opportunity. The 
curves do represent consequently the learning that followed equal 
stimulations in the school. One child could respond in an adequate 
manner and did so and the other child could not and so did not. Some 
children can learn mathematics so that they eventually master calculus 
and its applications to engineering, while others never get beyond the 
fundamentals. Some children master the principles of art and de- 
sign and become skilled in dressmaking, millinery, architecture, paint- 
ing, etc., while others are oblivious to the most atrocious combinations 
of color or form in their clothes, their home surroundings, etc. The 
gifted child learns rapidly and improves tremendously, the child who is 
lacking learns slowly and learns very little. 

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SOLVING SIMPLE ARITHMETICAL 
COMBINATIONS. 

Let us now more or less review what has been discussed in this les- 
son but consider the matter in terms of the data studied in Lesson 23. 

These data are plotted in Plate XII. The curves do not 
bring out the points so clearly as do the theoretically constructed 
curves of Plates VIII, IX, and X. Nevertheless they bear witness to all 
of those points. 

I. The greater the amount of practice the higher the curves start. 
This point needs no further discussion. 



LESSON 24 



123 





124 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

2. The greater the amount of practice the less rapid the gain. This 
point is true but it does not always appear, due to the presence of con- 
flicting factors. Altho none of these groups had had any previous 
training with the particular tests under discussion, yet we naturally 
would expect the adults to have had more practice and so to show 
less improvement than the 4th Grade children. The real cause, how- 
ever, as to why the curves do not clearly illustrate the point made at 
the commencement of this paragraph is due to the differences in the 
groups in terms of heredity. Not only are the adults superior to the 
4th Grade children because they have a mature development of their 
hereditary nature, but also without question a class of college men and 
women are superior to a class of 4th Grade children. That is, the 4th 
Grade class will not average as high an endowment when they be- 
come adults as do the college students. This class of 43 college students 
is probably composed of the brightest students from 43 4th Grade 
classes. The great differences in heredity cover up then the effect of 
much practice versus little practice. 

3. The greater the hereditary endowment the greater the improve- 
ment from training. This point is clear from the curves and from 
what has just been stated. 

4. The greater the training the more a group of individuals be- 
come unlike. At the commencement of the training recorded here the 
three groups could perform as follows : 

College students solve 59 plroblems per minute. 
4th Grade Children solve 19 problems per minute. 
Defective Children solve 4 problems per minute. 



Average 27.3 

A. D. 21. 1 

and at the end of ten practice periods they performed as follows : — 
College students solve 76 problems per minute. 
4th Grade children solve 30 problems per minute. 
Defective Children solve 7 problems per minute. 



Average 37.7 

A. D. 25.6 

As the A. D. has increased we know the groups are less alike than 
before. This fact is shown also in this way. 

College students are superior to 4th Grade Children at start by 40 
problems. 

College students are superior to 4th Grade Children at end by 46 
problems. 



I ESSO : 24 



125 



Uumbtr »t Tt»bltmS 1 










^^ 


A 


70 


^ 




40 
5-0 


/ 
/ 
/ 

/ 
f 

1 
I 
1 
f 


B 


40 


1 


C 


50 
20 


/ 


1> 


10 


/ 




0\ 

S ,10 1 


s 



Plata HI* Showing Isamiixg onrres 
in solving aimple aritljBetie&l ooin- 
binatiooa £roa adults, Ourva A 
(B-Test) and. Curra B m-Iest)t 4tli 
grade oMldrsn, CurTa (B-Taat) 
and Cnrra D (BZ-Tast) : and from da- 
faotiva ohlldran, OTirrea S and S (B 
Ta8t,--CurTa ? prior to and Ourra S 
aftar 170 mlnatas of spaelal driUL 
an addition oosblnations.) 

Also 

College students are superior to Defective Children at start by 55 
problems. 

College students are superior to Defective Children at end by 69 
problems, 
and — 

4th Grade Children are superior to Defective Children at start by 15 
problems. 

4th Grade Children are superior to Defective Children at end by 23 
problems. 



126 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR Tf;ACnERS 

This fourth fact, that training causes a group to "fly apart," to be- 
come more and more unlike, due to the inherent differences in the 
hereditary equipment of the members of the group, affects our school 
work most profoundly. It makes clear that no grade can be taught as 
a class without some members very shortly doing such good work as 
to tempt the authorities to promote them into the next grade and some 
other children doing such poor work as to lead to their being put back 
into the grade below or to force the teacher to give them individual 
instruction. No mechanical administrative scheme for holding a class 
together will ever work satisfactorily because the members of that 
class cannot advance at the same rate. The solution to this difficulty 
has not been evolved, but if it ever is, in the writer's opinion, it will in- 
clude a very flexible scheme of promotion by subject-matter, coinled 
with extensive provision for individual coaching of children that are 
markedly behind and markedly ahead of their class. This point will 
be taken up again later. But right now it should be realized that the 
main point of the whole problem is that children cannot progress in 
their learning at the same rate: — that some go fast, some go slow. 
and some advance at average speed. 

LESSON 25. THE GENERAL LAW AS TO HOW INDIVIDUALS 

DIFFER 

We know that people are different almost before we realize that 
there are people. We distinguish between tall people and short peo- 
ple, fat people and thin people, clever people and silly people, and 
most of us would agree fairly well in our classifications. But how do 
we draw these distinctions? Do we have hard and fast lines, enclosed 
between which one class is set off from another? Should we say that 
all men between o inches and 62 inches in height, for instance, are 
short, and those between 62 inches and 84 inches are tall ? Or that any 
one less than 125 lbs. is thin and anyone more than 125 lbs. is fat? 
And even if we decide to be so definite in these cases, (tho certainly our 
standard is artificial) where shall we draw the line in the case of men- 
tal attainments? Are we all talented or stupid for example? Or are 
most of us merely average people without special qualifying adjectives, 
and the rest of us simply either better or worse than the average? 
That is, instead of having separate little groups of idiots, normal folks, 
and geniuses, the members of each class keeping carefully to them- 
selves, do we perhaps have but one class of individuals, all typified by 
the average, yet all varying from the average in greater or less degree ? 

We are about to perform an experiment in throwing dice. This is 
as purely a chance performance as we can get. Let us see if the 



Number of Throws 



LESSON 25 127 



24 



19 












14 












8 


17 










5 


13 


16 




12 




4 


2 


10 


7 


3 


20 



18 22 
2 15 II 

21 25 I 6 4 2 10 7 3 20 9 23 

46 8 10 12 14 16 18 

Total Amount of Throws. 

Plate XIII. Illustrating by means of a "surface of distribution" 
twenty-five throws of three dice. 

throws are distinctly different or whether they follow one general law. 
For example, can we divide the throws into two groups — high and 
low, or must we think in terms of one group with variations from its 
average? In any case the results may apply to our biological problem 
as given above. 

THE EXPERIMENT. 
Problem. In throwing dice are the totals distinctly different or do 
they approach a general typef 
Apparatus. Coordinate paper ; 3 dice. 

Procedure. Part i. Lay off on your coordinate paper a base line, 
and number the squares from o to 20, as is done in Plate XIII. Lay off 
a vertical axis and number the squares from o to 35. Now commence 
and throw your three dice. Count up the total of the three dice and 
record that total on your coordinate paper in its proper place. (The 
writer threw first a 4, 3, and i, making a total of 8. A little square 
was then drawn as indicated by the i in Plate XIII. An 11 was 
thrown next and it is indicated by the 2 in the Plate. A 14 was thrown 
third, etc. Twenty-five throws are indicated in this Plate, the twenty- 
fifth throw being a 7. Plate XIII shows then that the writer threw 
one 6 two 12s 

one 7 one 13 

three 8s two 14s 

three 9s one 15 

six los one 16, and 

three lis one 17. 

Thus 25 throws are distributed or indicated in the plate. 

Record in this way 100 throws. Show your completed diagram to 
the instructor before proceeding further. 



128 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Such a diagram is called a surface of distribution as it shows just 
how all the throws were distributed among the possible totals. 

Part 2. Now determine how many different totals can be obtained 
by throwing three dice. (In Plate XIII are indicated 12 different 
totals, i. e., from a total of 6 to a total of 17, inclusive.) Present your 
answer to your instructor before proceeding further. 

Part 3. Now figure out (a) all the possible different combinations* 
it is possible to obtain by throwing three dice. 

(This assignment is independent of Part i and can be worked out 
without any reference to it). The writer threw first a 4, 3, and i ; next 
time he threw a 3, 5, and i ; the third he threw a 6, 5, and 3. Here are 
three different combinations. The question is, how many different 
combinations are there? (Consider in this connection that a throw of 
4, 3, and 2 is different from a 2, 4, and 3, and both of these are dif- 
ferent from a 3, 2, and 4.) 

Also figure out (b) how many of each total you will obtain whew 
every possible combination is considered. (For example, throws of 2, 
4, and 6 ; 5, 5, and 2 ; 5, 6, and i ; are three different combinations, but 
they all give the same total, i. e., 12.) In Plate XIII are indicated 12 dif- 
ferent totals, i. e., from a total of 6 to a total of 17, inclusive. On the 
preceding page are listed how many of each of these totals the writer 
obtained in his 25 throws. 

Part 4. Suppose instead of getting the 100 throws you did get, you 
had thrown the dice as many times as there are different combinations 
and in throwing the dice that number of times had got each and all 
of these different combinations. Plot a surface of distribution to illus- 
trate just this. 

Part 5. What relation do you think there exists between the sur- 
face of distribution you actually obtained by throwing the dice 100 
times and the surface of distribution obtained in the preceding para- 
graph ? 

What relation do you think there exists between the findings in this 
experiment of throwing dice and the general problem of how individuals 
differ ? Can throws be divided into two or more groups ; can in- 
dividuals? 

Hand in your report at the next class-hour. 

*MatheinaticaIly speaking what is wanted here is permutations, not combinations. 
That is, in forming combinations we are only concerned with the number of things 
each selection contains, whereas in forming permutations, we have also to consider 
the order of the things which nvake up each arrangement; for instance, if from six 
nirmbers, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, we make a selection of three, such as 123, this single 
combination admits of being arranged in the following ways: — 123. 132, 213, 231, 
312, and 321, and so gives rise to six different permutations. 



LESSON 26.— GENERAL LAW AS TO HOW INDIVIDUALS 

DIFFER* 



THE NORMAL SURFACE OE DISTRIBUTION. 

If one should take three dice and throw them 216 times, each time 
counting up the total score and plotting this score, one might obtain a 
surface of distribution somewhat like the three surfaces shown in 
Plate XIV. The first and third were actually so obtained, the middle 
one is the perfect surface which chance theoretically should give. 

One may figure out this theoretically perfect surface in this way. 
Count up all the throws that are possible and record how many times 
each total appears. You may have 



and 



and I, a total of 3 







2, 

3, 
4. 


4 
5 
6 

7 
8 




2 " 
2 " 


I, 

2, 

etc. 


4 
5 


3U have so obtained all the 


216 totals 


you will find that y< 


I total of 3 

3 totals of 4 

6 " 5 

10 " 6 

15 " 7 
21 " 8 

25 " 9 
27 " 10 






27 " II 

25 " 12 

21 " 13 

15 " 14 

10 " IS 

6 " 16 

3 " 17 

1 " 18 



When these data are plotted you have the ideal surface of distribu- 
tion in Plate XIV. All this means that when you throw three dice you 
are just as likely to get any one combination as any other. But you 
are more likely to get a total of 10 or 11 than 3 or 18. You can ex- 
press this likelihood by the expression 27 to i, for there are 27 combi- 
nations that will give a total of 10 or 11, whereas there is only one 
combination that will give 3 or 18. Our normal curve of distribution 
represents then that surface most likely to be obtained by 216 throws. 
Actually we seldom get exactly that ideal surface, but we do get sur- 
faces that approximate it in general appearance. 



•CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE UP 


READ 


26 
27 


Discuss, Lesson 25 
Exper., Lesson 27 


Lesson 27 


Lesson 26 



129 



130 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TSACHERS 




9 . t S J£ IS 

»< -V* 5?^® BTirfaoee of diatribatlon obtained from throwing throe dice 216 
uasa. ne £lrat and third surfaces were obtained from 216 actual throws. The 
y f^* *■* oa8«d on what theoretically should be obtained from that number of 

One may think of this matter of throwing three dice as being con- 
ditioned on three independent factors, each one of which may vary in- 
dependently in six different ways. When the three independent factors 
with their six possible variations are considered as a whole, we realize 
that there are 216 independent combinations possible. But the 216 
independent combinations do not give 216 different final scores. They 
give but 16 different scores (from 3 to 18). Nor do the 216 combina- 
tions give an equal number of each of the 16 different scores. They 
give varying numbers of the 16 different scores — only one 3, three 4s, 
six 5s, etc., as in the table above. 

Now in a similar way we may think of the characters of different in- 
dividuals as the final scores resulting from the interaction of many 
independent factors, each of which may vary independently in many 
ways. Instead of there being but three factors with six variations each, 
which combined give us our human individualities, there are undoubt- 
edly many more than three factors and these factors have many more 
than six variations. Nevertheless the final outcome is very similar 



LESSON 26 



131 





Plate XV. The nojrmal curve or surface 
of distribution. The two curves differ 
only in that a coarse unit of measure- 
ment was employed in the second case 
whereas a fine unit was employed in 
the first case;-- 'i.e., inches vs. 
ieighthsof an inch. (From E. L. Thorn- 
dUce.'Bducational Psychology, Vol. 111. » 
p 334. 

to what we obtain by throwing dice. We find that most of the indi- 
viduals, just Hke most of the throws, give us individualities that re- 
semble each other very much, just as the throws of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 
13 are very much alike. We find also that occasionally we get very 
striking personalities, just as very occasionally we get throws of 3 or 4 
or 17 or 18. They are striking because they differ so from what we 
ordinarily have. 

In Plate XV are given two different methods of drawing the typical 
surface of distribution. In the lower of these two surfaces there was 
used a very coarse unit of measurement, e. g., inches in measuring 
height, and in the upper surface there was used a very much finer unit 
of measurement, e. g., eighths of an inch. We can imagine a surface 
drawn on the basis of a still finer unit of measurement. In this case 
the jogs in the line would be very, very small, so that for all practical 
purposes the line would be a smooth curve and not a jagged line. Such 
a curve is called the normal curve of distribution. In terms of geome- 
try the normal curve of distribution is the limit approached by most 
surfaces of distribution which are obtained in biological studies. 
THE DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. 

An Ideal Distribution. When we come to study human beings we 
find that they fit into our normal surface wonderfully well. In fact, the 



132 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TElACHERS 

conception has been derived from our study of individual differences. 
In Plate XVI is shown a normal curve of distribution picturing the dif- 
ferent types of individuals according to general intelligence. 
In the middle are the great bulk (50%) of human beings — aver- 
age human beings. As we proceed to the left, we have individuals 
slightly below the average; "dull" persons; morons with intelligence 
approximately equal to children from 8.0 to lo.o years ;* and then 



1 — ' ■ T 

Illot lmbe« Boron Doll Below A7erae« ADore Local Talent* Bril« ( g^^t^ m^ 
oile ATOi-ace Average Leadei* ed liaot InBtioffti 

I lMid»r 
Plata XVX. A normal anrfaoe of dlstribatlon dlylded up Into twelTe groups altov- 
l&g eleTsn degrees ,ef general Intelllgenoe (the middle too gronps ar« together 
considered as typioal of average Intelllgenoe). 

Sote: In this dieig^fam the surfaoe is so di Tided np that the intervals alon^ the 
base line are equal. In other words, the difference in general intelligence 
between an? two groups are e^toal. ■ ' The areas so marked off are not equal* 60J( 
of the entire 100,000,000 population of the United States would be placed in 
the two middle aireaa designated " average? On the other hand about 2^ of the 
population would be included in the last three groupA at the left. 

imbeciles with intelligence of from 2.0 to 8.0 years ; and idiots with 
intelligence of from 0.0 to 2.0 years. The remaining 0.001% of the 
inferior population can possibly be thought of as being too inferior to 
live and so constitute a fraction of those who are born dead. In the 
same way we may divide up our superior individuals proceeding from 
the middle group out toward the right. Apparently we have no terms 
to cover these superior individuals so that the expressions used here 
have no standard meaning. To the right of the group entitled "Na- 
tional Leaders," comprising 29,000 in a population of 100,000,000 are 
still 1,000 individuals not to be overlooked. They comprise our most 
valuable men, our geniuses, etc. 

Professor Cattell** in his study of the thousand most eminent men of 
< 

*T>-e f i« ■ crreTt deal of controversy todr^.y as to what should be the proper mental- 
age limit of morons. Some writers place it as high as 12 years Experience based 
upon testing men in the army makes 10 years a satisfactory figure. 

••J McK. Cattell, A Statistical Study of Eminent Men, Popular Science Monthly^ 
Feb.. 1903. 



LESSON 26 



133 



history, studied a group even more eminent than chese since his thou- 
sand was not taken from a population of 100,000,000 but from the 
population of the known civilized world. They would be located on 
this diagram several groups to the right of the group here entitled 
"National Leaders." According to Cattell the ten most eminent men 
of all history are the following in the order of their prominence: — 
Napoleon, Shakespeare, Mohammed, Voltaire, Bacon, Aristotle, 
Goethe, Julius Caesar, Luther, and Plato. 

ACTUAL DISTRIBUTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. 

In Lesson 22 our attention was called to the fact that the averages 
of the eight grades of a school may be equal or superior to the norms 
for those grades, and yet many children in each grade may be in a 
very bad way educationally. The specific case was mentioned of 
testing a school with the Kansas Silent Reading Test and the indi- 
vidual scores for all the children were presented in Table VL These 
scores are again given in Plate XVIII, where they are displayed as 
surfaces of distribution. Because of the small number of children in 
any class these surfaces only remotely approximate the form of the 
surface of distribution which would be obtained if there had been 100 
or 200 children in each grade. When the scores from all the children 
in Grades IV to VIII are combined, as they are in the lower part of 
Plate XVIII, a surface of distribution much more similar to the typical 
form is obtained. If the scores from the children in Grades I to III 
had been included the surface of distribution would be still more 
similar to the usually obtained form. Nevertheless the form obtained 
here is typical of the form which results from a study of individual 
differences in nearly all traits, both mental and physical. 

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Plat* iyil. Showing the diatribution of soorea obtained by enlisted men aad 
offloora in psychological Intelligence test (Teat A). Baaed on aoorea of 
18fl,747 "literate "men and 8096 White officers. Undoubtedly many enlisted 
men too illitatate to take the *«at were Inclndad here* 



134 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



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Plate XVIII. Showing the Distribution of Children in Grades IV 
to Vllf, based on the Kansas Silent Reading Test. (See Table VI for 

individual scores.) (Averages of each grade indicated by the arrows.) 



LESSON 26 135 

During the war a psychological "general intelligence" test was given 
to hundreds of thousands of the enlisted men and to many of the 
officers. Distributions of the scores obtained are shown in Plate XVII. 
They show that the officers were as a class superior to the enlisted 
men in intelligence. This fact may be expressed also as follows : 
2.4% of the enlisted men were superior to 75% of the officers 
6.4% of the enlisted men were superior to 50% of the officers 
12.2% of the enlisted men were superior to 25% of the officers 

Intelligence is not the only qualification needed by officers. Some 
of those with low intelligence scores were superior in leadership and 
experience. In the same way some of the enlisted men who were very 
superior in intelligence had very poor physique and appearance or 
were lacking in education or leadership, etc. From the standpoint of 
the psychologists and personnel officers the problem of selection of men 
for officers' training camps was to find the superior enlisted men — su- 
perior both in intelligence and other necessary qualifications. 

The sharp drop at the extreme left of the enlisted men's distribu- 
tion curve proves conclusively that many enlisted men were not 
measured here who belonged to the gfroup of enlisted men. This was 
true. Twenty-five per cent, of men were eliminated by the draft 
boards as below standard physically, mentally or morally. And the 
worst illiterates were not given the test. Illiterates and those making 
a poor score in this test were given a test not involving reading. 

FUNDAMENTAI, CAUSES OF INDIVIDUAI, DIFFERENCES. 

Individual diflferences are to be thought of as the resultant of many 
more or less independent factors, each of which vary considerably. 
These factors may be grouped under the three headings — environment, 
heredity and training. The diflferent acts now being performed by 
human beings in this country this moment are due to the situations 
confronting them, their innate make-up, and their previous experiences. 
In the case of heredity, we may look upon a human being as made up of 
many factors handed down to him from his parents thru the two germ 
cells. These factors are more or less independent. According to the 
combination which results from all these factors we have any particular 
human being. As illustrated by the experiment in throwing dice, altho 
there may be many combinations of factors with their individual varia- 
tions there results ( i ) a much smaller number of distinct individuali- 
ties and (2) the great majority of such individualities are much alike 
with only relatively few cases of marked variation from the average. 

One factor zvhich causes individual differences. At the present time 
science has ascertained in only a few cases what the factors are which 



136 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



affect human beings so as to make them different. And even there this 
has been done only to a Hmited degree. One example may be mentioned 
simply to make this matter clearer. In the throat or neck are some 
small glands known as the thyroid glands. They secrete into the blood 
a substance which is "characterized by containing a large amount of 
iodin (9.3% of the dry weight)." This chemical, apparently, exercises 
in the tissues "a regulating action of an important or indeed essential 
character." Removal or atrophy of the thyroids results in a condition 
of chronic malnutrition ; "in the young it is responsible for arrested 
growth and deficient development designated as cretinism, and in the 
adult the same cause gives rise to the peculiar disease of myxedema, 
characterized by distressing mental deterioration, an edematous (dropsy 
of the subcutaneous cellular tissue) condition of the skin, loss of hair, 
etc. " On the other hand, enlargement of the thyroid glands "forms 
an essential factor of the disease exophthalmic goitre." "The salient 
feature of exophthalmic goitre is a lowered threshold to all stimuli." 
"The organism responds at such times to the prick of a pin, a hint of 
danger, or the slightest infection, by a transformation of energy many 
times greater than would follow the same stimulation in the normal 
organism." Patients suffering from cretinism are now fed this iodin 
chemical, whereas patients suffering from exophthalmic goitre are 

TABLE VIII. SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF 4th AND 8th GRADE 

CHILDREN WHO (a) ATTEMPTED AND (b) SOLVED 

FROM o TO 20 PROBLEMS 



Per ( 


:ent. of Pupils 


who attempted to 


Per 


cent, of 


Pupils 


who 


Solved Cor- 


do a Given Number 


of Problems 




rec 


tly 


a Given Number of Problems. 


4th GRADE 


8th GRADE 




4th 


Grade 






8th Grade 


20 Probs.— 0% 


20 


Probs. 


-5% 


20 


Probs. — 0% 




20 


Probs 


—2% 


19 





19 


" 


2 


19 




" 




19 


ii 


I 


18 ' 





18 


" 


2 


18 









18 


" 


I 


17 





17 


" 


3 


17 




" 




17 


" 


I 


16 


I 


16 


" 


4 


16 









16 


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2 


15 


I 


15 


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6 


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LESSON 26 



137 



ATTEMPTS 



5C0f?E 



RIGHTS 

TH 




Plate XIX. Showing the percentage of 4th and Pth grade 
children who (a) attempted and (b) got right from to 20 
problems In eight minutes. (Each figure represents one cMld 
i?.?«,f -^f of one hundred. The figures in black represent 
children in the 4th grade Tirho could be interchanged vd.th 
corresponding children in the 8th grade withoutif fee ting 

JJ^I^oT?^?^?'' ^*^:^ °f ®^*^®^ erade. From S. A. Courtii, 
Educational Diagnosis, Second Indiana Educational Confer- 
ence, p 154. / 

operated on so as to reduce the amount of this chemical given off by 
the thyroid glands. We see here a single factor in the entire organism 
— the production of an iodine chemical — which when only slightly pro- 
duced results in cretinism (deficient physical and mental development), 
when normally produced results in normal behavior, and when exces- 
sively produced results in goitre accompanied by a chronic state of 
great excitability.* 

THE OVERLAPPING OF DISTRIBUTIONS OF ABILITY IN DIFFERENT SCHOOL 

GRADES. 

The scores of children in the Kansas Silent Reading Test for the 
various school grades overlap enormously (See Plate XVIII). Because 

•Quotations are from W. H. Howell, Physiology. 1907, pp. 794-707 and G W 
Crile. Man — An Adaptive Mechanism, 1916, pp. 140-143 and 192-197. 



138 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TE;aCHERS 

it is one of the most important conceptions in educational theory today 
it will repay us to consider still another example of it here. In Table 
VIII are given the records of 4th and 8th Grade children in column 
addition.* 

The type of example used in the test is illustrated in Plate XIX. 
(Examples of this sort make up the Addition Problems in the Courtis 
Arithmetic Tests). Courtis measures the speed of work by recording 
the number of problems "attempted" and the accuracy of the work by 
recording the number of problems which were "right" or correct. The 
four columns show what per cent, of the two grades "attempted" or got 
"right" any specific number of problems ranging from 20 to o. For 
example, the table shows that 0% of the 4th Grade attempted 20 prob- 
lems while 5% of the 8th Grade attempted that number, and it shows 
that naturally 0% of the 4th Grade got 20 problems right, while 2% of 
the 8th Grade did solve that number correctly. It shows further that 
1% of the 4th Grade attempted 12 problems as against 9% of the 8th 
Grade, and that 1% of the 4th Grade got 12 problems right, as against 
5% in the 8th Grade. If we want to know just how many children at- 
tempted or solved correctly 12 or more problems in the two grades we 
must add up all the percents. in the table for 12 problems and better. 
This gives us the following: 5% of the 4th Grade attempted 12 or 
more problems as against 46% of the 8th Grade and 2% of the 4th 
Grade got right 12 or more problems as against 21% of the 8th Grade. 
All of this is shown diagrammatically in Plate XIX. 

The averages of the 4th and 8th Grades are given at the bottom of 
the table. The 8th Grade has done just about twice as well as the 4th 
Grade on the basis of these figures. In terms of such figures one would 
expect that all 8th Grade children would be superior to all 4th Grade 
children for the former averages 8.4 problems correct to 3.8 problems 
for the latter. But a study of the table and particularly the plate 
shows that this is false. Fifty-one of the children in the 8th Grade 
could be put in the 4th Grade and a corresponding number in the 
4th Grade be put in the 8th Grade and the averages of the two 
grades for accuracy would not be affected at all. When we give 
our 8th Grade children a diploma, graduating them into the High 
School, we feel that the diploma means that they are up to 8th Grade 
standards and far superior to 7th, or 6th, or 5th, or certainly 4th Grade 
standards. But apparently many in the class are not. For here in this 
perfectly typical illustration based on about 11,000 children, 38 in every 
hundred 8th Grade children are no different from 38 other children in 

*S. .A. Courtis, Educational Diagnosis, Second Indiana Educational Conference, 1915, 
p. 154. 



A. 


D. 


1-94 


A. 


D. 


2.69 


A. 


D. 


2.19 


A. 


D. 


309 



LESSON 26 139 

the 4tli Grade as regards their speed of addmg and 51 in every hun- 
dred 8th Grade children are no different from 51 other 4th Grade chil- 
dren as regards their ability to add correctly columns of figures. 

This comparison between the two grades may be made in another 
way. The average number of problems solved correctly in the 4th 
Grade is 3.8. There are 11 children in the 8th Grade inferior to the 
average of 4th Grade children. And in like manner there are 6 chil- 
dren in the 4th Grade who are clearly superior to the 8th Grade aver- 
age of 8.4 problems. Averages in this case clearly mean very little. 
The differences among the children themselves in either class are far 
more significant than the two class averages based on the individual 
records. 

In a similar way the A. D. may be determined for the data in Table 
VIII concerning the ability of children in the 4th and 8th Grades to 
add columns of figiires. We then have : — 

Average number of problems aUempted in 4th Grade 6.44, 

Average number of problems attempted in 8th Grade 11-65, 

Average number of problems correctly solved in 4th Grade 3.81, 
Average number of problems correctly solved in 8th Grade 8.41, 

As pointed out in Lesson 22 the size of these A. D.'s immediately 
warns us against supposing that all the children are equal to the aver- 
age for their grade. They also confirm again the point made in I,esson 
24 that the greater the training the more the individuals are different. 
Inspection of the surfaces of distribution in Plate XIX, as well as the 
size of these A. D.'s shows that the members of the 8th Grade differ 
more among themselves than do the members of the 4th Grade. This 
fact would be all the more clearly shown if the children who have 
dropped out of school between the 4th and 8th Grades, were present in 
this 8th Grade. For most of them would appear at the lower end of 
the surface of distribution. 

This matter of how children differ among themselves is a very im- 
portant problem affecting our whole educational system in a very pro- 
found way. When we realize that 51 of 8th Grade children add col- 
umns of figures no more accurately than a corresponding num.her of 
4th Grade children we feel that something must be wrong with onr 
school system. All of our methods of study, all of our methods for 
supervision, and all of our administration schemes should be subjected 
to careful scrutiny in order to see if any of them are the cause for this 
astounding comparison. Possibly, radical changes might produce a 
more uniform proficiency in the grades. Possibly the graded system 
itself is at fault. Possibly the differences discussed here are inherent 
in chiidren themselves, so that very little or nothing can be don? to 



I40 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

rectify the matter. If that is the case, then, changes possibly should 
be made so that 8th Grade diplomas might have a more definite mean- 
ing than they now apparently have. 

LESSON 27. HOW SHOULD STUDENTS BE GRADED? 

One of the most perplexing problems in education today is that of 
grading students. Until very recently the subject was ignored, for it 
was taken for granted that if a person was capable of teaching his 
class he was capable of grading the students in that class. Even to- 
day, the vast majority of teachers consider it their inalienable right to 
grade as they please and strenuously resent any interference with 
their methods. Recent studies made on this subject show, however, 
that teachers differ very widely in the way they grade their students. 
In fact, the variation is so great that it is perfectly apparent that all 
cannot be grading their students fairly. And when "honors" are 
based on the grades of different instructors the injustice of the present 
system is clearly apparent. A friend of the writer deliberately re- 
stricted his work as far as possible to the three departments of Latin, 
German, and History in a great university, because he realized that 
it was easy to make high grades there and he was determined to win 
Phi Beta Kappa. These three departments granted "A's" to 30% of 
their students, while many other departments granted "A's" to less 
than 5% of their students. He made his Phi Beta Kappa key but 
at the expense of a broad well-rounded college training. If he had 
taken courses from many departments he would have stood certainly 
less than half the chance of getting high grades and probably not 
more than one-third the chance. 

Below are given (See Table IX) the grades which an instructor 
awarded a class in history. They are the grades from three examina- 
jtions, and the final grade for the semester is to. be made up from them, 
each of the three to count one-third of the final grade. (The grades 
were obtained by the instructor assigning definite values to each ques- 
tion or part of a question, scoring the student in terms of each ques- 
tion, and finally totalling all these separate scores. The grades given 
here have been modified somewhat by the writer but they approximate 
in a general way the grades actually given by this instructor.) 

Plot surfaces of distribution for the three sets of grades listed 
below. 



LESSON 27 



141 



TABLE IX. THE GRADES GIVEN BY AN INSTRUCTOR IN THREE 
EXAMINATIONS. WHAT SHOULD BE THE FINAL 
GRADE OF EACH STUDENT? 

Final 
Grade 



Students 


First Exanx. 


Sec. Exam. 


Third Exam. 


I 


60 


100 


70 


2 


SS 


90 


SS 


3 


SO 


80 


8b 


4 


45 


95 


55 


5 


45 


85 


70 


6 


40 


95 


SO 


7 


40 


80 


4° 


8 


35 


70 


6S 


9 


35 


85 


45 


10 


30 


75 


60 


II 


30 


80 


SO 


12 


30 


90 


75 


13 


25 


95 


30 


14 


25 


90 


60 


15 


20 


90 


55 


16 


20 


85 


55 


17 


20 


8e 


35 


18 


15 


100 


50 


19 


IS 


65 


40 


20 


10 


80 


45 


21 


10 


85 


35 


22 


5 


85 


45 


23 


S 


60 


30 


24 





75 


25 



Answer the following questions: — 

1. Who is responsible for the low grades in the first examination and 
the high grades in the second examination ? Do the grades mean that 
the students loafed before the first examination and studied hard 
before the second ? Or do they mean that the first examination was too 
hard or too long and the second too easy or too short? Or do they 
mean that the course of study was poorly organized at the beginning 
and the teaching was poor at the start and after the poor showing in 
the first examination the teacher "woke up" and "got busy" and did 
good teaching? 

Who, then, is primarily responsible for the grades in the first exami- 
nation ranging from 60 to o and in the second examination from 
100 to 60? 

2. Which grade represents the greater ability, 60 given in the first 
examination or 80 given in the second? 60 is 20% inferior to 80, of 
course. But, on the other hand, only one student received 60 in the 
first examination and none received a higher rating, whereas in the 
second examination 5 students received 80 and 14 more received 
higher grades than 80. 



142 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACIIEKS 

3. If we arrange the students by order of merit according to their 
grades in the three examinations, we find that the 

best student got 60, 100 and 80, respectively, 
the I2th student got 30, 85 and 50, respectively, and 
the poorest student got o, 60 and 25, respectively. 
Are 60, 100 and 80 equal then? or fo. 85 and 50? or o, 60 and 25? 

4. In grading examination papers should we grade in terms of the 
"ideal" paper, the best paper, the paper of an average student, or the 
poorest paper? With which one of these standards is the teacher 
most likely to be familiar? Which one is most likely to fluctuate 
from year to year ? 

5. What final grades would you give these 24 students on the basis 
of the three examinations? Plot the surface of distribution for the 
grades you assign. 

6. Are your final grades fair to the students? to the instructor? to 
students in other classes in the institution? to other instructors? to 
the institution as a whole? Explain. 

Hand in your report at the next class-hour. 



LESSON 28~METHODS OF GRADING STUDENTS* 

The matter of grading students in a class is a subject that is inti- 
mately connected with the subject of individual differences. It is 
introduced here as an illustration of how this subject is related in 
still another way to educational theory and practice. 

SYSTEMS OF MARKING STUDENTS. 

Grading on Percentage Basis with Prescribed Passing Mark. One 
of the two most universally used systems of grading students is to give 
students grades ranging. from o to loo, with some grade as 50, or 60. 
or 75, or even 80, as a passing mark. 

The theory underlying the granting of percentages is that the 
student is graded in terms of absolute proficiency. If he gets 90 in 
an examination in arithmetic or spelling, he has done gofo of the 
examination correctly. The system works fairly well here. But it 
falls down completely in such subjects as English Composition, or 
history or geography, etc. For who knows what is absolute profi- 
ciency in composition work for 5th grade children? How does such 
a standard differ from the 4th grade, or from the 6th grade? Actually 
in ordinary practise the grades represent at best only a certain per- 
centage of what the teacher considers the class can do. It is based 
on two very variable things — the teacher's estimate of what the class 
can do, and second — the class itself. If the class is better than usual, 
the teacher's grades stand for better work than usual ; if the class is 
poorer than usual, the teacher's grades represent poorer work than 
usual. Despite the best efforts of any teacher his grades are not 
standardized on the basis of a fixed absolute standard but vary with 
the calibre of his pupils. It is impossible under such conditions to 
ever expect that a "85" will represent a definite standard of work in 
a particular course. The 85 will vary from year to year with the 
same teacher, and it will vary with every two teachers, depending 
on those teachers' estimates of what a class can do. (All of these 
statements have been substantiated in every investigation on this 
subject and are no longer open to argument.) 

Grading on Basis of Five Groups. The other most universally used 
system of grading students is to give the students grades in terms of 
about five letters or numbers, such as A, B, C, D, and F; or E, S, M, 



•CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE UP 


READ 


28 
29 


Discuss. Lesson 27 
Experiment, Les. 29 


Lesson 29 


Lesson 28 



143 



144 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

I, and F; or again i, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The A, E, or i is given to the 
best students ; the B, S, or 2, to the next best group ; etc. The F or 
5 is considered as failure. Sometimes the fourth grade, D, I, or 4 is 
"not passing" and sometimes it is considered as "conditioned" requiring 
another examination. At still other institutions D is a passing grade 
but entitles the student to but 80% credit, so that in a 5-hour course 
the student with a D will receive but 4 hours credit. 

It is because of insurmountable difficulties pointed out above in 
connection with the percentage system of marking that this system of 
grading students with five letters has arisen. The whole scheme of 
grading students on the basis of an absolute standard of perfection 
is thrown away, or almost thrown away* The teacher then roughly 
divides the class into five groups, the excellent students, the good, the 
fair, the inferior, and the failures. More or less of the old scheme 
survives in the case of deciding just what will constitute a passing 
standard as distinguished from a failure. The essential thing, how- 
ever, is the division of the class into five groups in terms of their 
general ability and performance in the particular class. 

Anyone familiar with the laws underlying individual differences 
immediately realizes that these five groups should not contain an equal 
number of students ; — that the largest number of students should be 
in the middle group, and that relatively few should be in the two 
extreme groups, the excellent students and the failures. But the 
study of how teachers grade students shows clearly that teachers differ 
enormously as to how they distribute their grades under this scheme. 
In Table X is shown the distrbution of grades in seven courses in 
the University of Missouri prior to 1908. It is clear from this table, 
and it represents conditions in every institution of that time and most 
institutions today, that a student could quite easily win "honors," or 
a scholarship, or make Phi Beta Kappa by electing Philosophy, Eco- 
nomics, etc., but would have an extremely small chance of obtaining 
these honors if he grouped in Chemistry. Yet an "A" counted 
equally toward these honors whether obtained in Philosophy or Chem- 
istry III. In the same way a poor student would have little trouble in 
passing Philosophy but would stand a good chance of being "flunked" in 
English II or Chemistry III. The problem educators are now facing 
in regard to grading students is how to make an "A" or "F" mean the 
same thing whether given by Prof. Smith or Prof. Brown, whether 
given in Philosophy or Chemistry, whether given in 191 5 or 1917. 

•Of course, in those cases where a teacher marks a student by these five letters but 

always translates the letter into a numerical figure, so that A equals 100 to 95; B, 95 to 
85; etc.; he is practically following the first scheme and not the second. When the 
second scheme is used properly there are no numerical values attached to the letters. 



LESSON 28 145 

TABLE X. SHOWING THE RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF FOUR 

GRADES A, B. C, AND F, AS FOUND BY MAX MEYER IN 

THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, IN 1908. 

(Table based on Max Meyer, "The Grading of Students," Science, August 

21, 1908, p. 3.) 

Total No. 

Course Distribution of Grades of Students 

A B C F Considered 

Philosophy 55 33 10 2 623 

Economics 39 37 19 5 161 

German II 26 38 25 11 941 

Education 18 38 35 9 266 

Mechanics 18 26 42 14 495 

English II 9 28 35 28 1098 

Chemistry III in 60 28 1903 

An important step toward obtaining equitable grading has been to 
apply the conception of our normal surface of distribution to the prob- 
lem. Any group of students (barring exceptional cases considered be- 
low) will divide themselves up into inferior, average, and superior 
students and these three groups will approximate 25%, 50% and 
25% in size, respectively. They will do so if the method of grading 
them is fair. If, however, the examination is too easy or too difficult 
there will appear not a normal distribution but one in which there are 
too many superior or too many inferior students, respectively. If in 
two classes of 100 students, Prof. Smith and Prof. Brown require a 
fair amount of work, then 25% of the students will do superior work, 
50% average work and 25% inferior work. If Prof. Smith requires 
too much and Prof. Brown too little, then it may appear that the 
former has 40% inferior and 10% superior students whereas the 
latter has 10% inferior and 40^ superior students. If we require 
each professor to grade 25% of his students superior, 50% average, 
and 25% inferior, then we recognize (i) that one class of students 
taken as a whole is about equal to any other class and (2) that 
students are graded in terms of what an average student will do and 
not in terms of a variable standard of what is required by different 
instructors. In such a case we know that a "superior" student for 
Prof. Smith has actually done better work than % of the students in 
his class and that a "superior" student for Prof. Brown has likewise 
excelled % of his class. A given grade is not then a grade in terms 
of any absolute standard of perfection but is a grade in terms of 
zvhat average students can do. 

With such a requirement the irregular grading shown in 
Table X was eliminated to a large extent at the University 
of Missouri. The average of all the grades for the under- 
graduate courses became in 191 1, 23.7% superior, 49.9% average, 



146 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

and 26.4% inferior. Nineteen of the instructors distributed their 
grades as shown in Table XL Comparison of the individual 
instructor's gradings in this table with those in Table X shows an 
enormous improvement in the way of uniform grading on the part of 
the faculty. An "E" now means nearly the same high grade of 
scholarship whether given by one instructor or another. The gradings 
in Table XI are, however, still too irregular as respecting Grades ''I" 
and "F" to be entirely satisfactory. 

The Missouri System of Grading. As can be seen from Tabie XI^ 
the Missouri system of grading students provides first of all for the 
.students being divided into three groups, — superior, average, and 
inferior, — so that the first group comprises the best 25% of the stu- 
dents, the second group the middle 50^, and the third the remainder. 
The superior and inferior are further divided so that in effect there 
are five grades of E (excellent), S (superior), M (medium), I (in- 
ferior), and F (failure). As illustrated in Plate XX the surface of 

TABLE XL SHOWING THE RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF THE FIVE 

GRADES E, S, M, I, AND F, AS USED BY VARIOUS INSTRUCTORS 

IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI IN 191 1. 

(Based on the "Report of the Committee on Statistics on the Grading ef the 

Semester," Closing Feb., 1911.) 



Instructors 


% E 


% S 


% M 


% I 


% F 


A 


7 


29 


SI 


8 


5 


B 


5 


23 


52 


15 


5 


C 


3 


21 


51 


21 


4 


D 


7 


21 


56 


8 


8 


E 


6 


IS 


60 


13 


6 


F 


I 


22 


5S 


17 


5 


G 


2 


17 


64 


II 


6 


H 


3 


21 


52 


18 


6 


I 


3 


24 


46 


21 


6 


J 


3 


20 


SI 


20 


6 


K 


3 


20 


53 


16 


8 


L 


3 


23 


47 


17 


10 


M 


2 


19 


5S 


14 


10 


N 


4 


19 


45 


23 


9 





5 


20 


43 


21 


II 


P 


7 


21 


47 


9 


16 





3 


^3 


52 


19 


13 


R 


5 


II 


43 


29 


12 


S 


3 


15 


47 


20 


15 


Average 


f 


19.7 
1 


n 

Si-o 


16.8 

1 


8.5 




23.6 






25-3 



distribution is so divided that the difference in ability represented 
by Grades E and S is equal to the difference between S and M, or 



LESSON 28 



147 



2* 



i2^ 



50J? 



22^ 



5^ 



Grades F 



M 



5 



Plate U. A normal surface of distribution divided up into 
five groups showing five grades of scholarship. At the 
University of Missouri these five grades are called P (fail- 
xire), I (inferior) » M (m&dium) , S (superior) , and B (excel- 
lent). At Peabody College the grades are called F (failure), 
D (inferior), C (average), B (superior), and A (excellent. 1 

M and I, or I and F. The standard which all instructors are ex- 
pected to reach in their grading is then that $0% of the students 
shall receive an M, 22% an S, 22% an I, 3% an E, and 3% an F. 

One objection to this scheme will immediately occur to some readers. 
Maybe half the class has actually failed and you have given most of 
them a C or D. Will that method of marking be fair? Yes, cer- 
tainly; for if half the class fails, who is to blame? Undoubtedly, in 
practically every case, no one but the teacher. The examination was 
too difficult, or too long, or because of poor discipline the students 
had not studied. This system throws the blame for poor work in the 
class on the person who deserves the blame — the teacher. Of course, 
sometimes a group of students will not work, then the only final resort 
is to "flunk" them. But such cases are rare as compared with those 
where the trouble lies in the main with the instructor. 

Here are the faculty rules at George Peabody College for Teachers 
on this subject. They make plain that the above system applies di- 
rectly to large classes and only indirectly to small classes, and possibly 
not at all to exceptional classes, such as in graduate courses. 

"It is fair to assume that the average student in any undergraduate course is 
equal in ability to the average student in any other undergraduate course. Con- 
sequently it is fair to expect that all members of the faculty will in the long run 



148 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TElACHERS 

(when tliey liave marked 500 students, say) give approximately the same per 
cent, of students each of the five grades. 

"It is also fair to assume that the calibre of classes does vary, and that this is 
particularly true in the case of very small classes. Consequently it is fair to 
expect '!ia! 'I.r menihcs nf the ^'acuity will vary considerably in the way they 
mark the members of particular classes. 

"We expect then in the long run that the members of the faculty will all use 
the same standards. We also expect, on the other hand, that there will be 
noticealile variation in the way individual classes will be marked. In the light 
of these assumptions, the following rules are laid down: 

"I. The quality of the student's work in a course shall be reported to the regis- 
trar by use of the following grades : A, B, C, D, and F. 

"2. The grade of "C" is designed to represent the performance of the mid- 
dle 50% of the class. The grades of "B," and "D" represent work that is su- 
perior and inferior, respectively, to that of the middle group. The grade of 
"A" is reserved for markedly superior work, while the grade of "F" is de- 
signed for those who have failed and shall receive no credit for their work. 
Students receiving the grade of "D" will receive but 80% of the full credit at- 
tached to the course, i. e., in a five-hour course such a student will receive but 
four hours credit. 

"3. It is recognized that the more advanced the student the more selected is 
the class with which he will be grouped and the system of marking will vary 
proportionately. 

"4. Experience has shown that in the long run the instructor will give approxi- 
mately 3% of his students an "A," 22% of his students a "B," 50% a "C," 
22% a "D," and 3% an "P'." 

Such a imiforniity of grades from the members of a facuUy is 
highly desirable and is to be expected so long as it can be assumed 
that the calibre of students in one class is equivalent to those in an- 
other class. If an instructor gives proportionately more low or high 
grades in his classes than this ideal, he declares in so doing that his 
students are poorer or better than the students in other classes. This 
is, of course, in many cases an actual fact, and when so, an instructor 
.'hould mark accordingly. But in the ordinary course of events one 
class is pretty nearly equivalent to another class as far as ability of the 
students composing it is concerned. 

Varying the Amount of Credit tvith the Grade Given. The Uni- 
versity of Missouri further provides that students shall obtain varying 
amounts of credit for their work according as they obtain high or low 
grades. At the present time in a one hour course, a student obtaining 
an E earns 1.15 hours credit, a student obtaining an S earns i.io 
hours credit, a student obtaining an M earns i.oo hour credit, a student 
obtaining an I earns 0.85 hour credit, and a student obtaining an F 
earns o credit. Prof. Max Meyer, who has been responsible for the 
adoption of the Missouri scheme of grading, is now advocating that 
the grades shall carry these amounts of credit: — E (1.2 hrs. credit), 
S (i.i hrs. credit), M (i.o hr. credit), I (0.9 hr. credit), and P 
(poor) (0.8 hr. credit). A student "who ought to repeat the course 



LESSON 28 149 

before his attainments are recognized, and who therefore is marked 
F by his teachers, would receive no credit toward graduation.* 

PRESENT TENDENCIES IN GRADING. 

Among colleges and universities the tendency is away from the 
percentage system to the group system and to a limited extent toward 
the Missouri system, which has been adopted more or less entirely in 
a number of institutions. 

Among secondary schools, today, 30% employ percentage systems 
and 65% the group system. Of those using the group system, 44% 
have three grades above passing, 52% have four grades, and 4% have 
five grades. The National Conference Committee on Standards of 
Colleges and Secondary Colleges recommends 'that, ("if a group 
system is used, the letters A, B, C, or A, B, C, D be employed to indi- 
cate passing grades, and that E or F, or both E and F, be reserved 
for failure. The committee calls attention to the fact that the 
majority of colleges use four groups above passing, and that the 
tendency in schools appears to be in that direction. 

"The committee recommends that schools using a percentage sys- 
tem follow what appears to be the most common practice, of using 60 
as the passing grade.** 

So in school grades any student must be compared with his class 
and with the average of the class, not with the best one in the class, 
and fortunately, as investigations have shown that the average per- 
formance in one class is approximately the same as that in other 
classes, we do have quite a stable standard from which to measure. 

DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM ASSIGNED IN LESSON 27. 

With these general considerations before us let us turn now and 
consider the problem which was assigned in Lesson 27. 

The Surfaces of Distribution ; What They Shozv. The grades from 
the three examinations given in Lesson 27 are plotted in surfaces of 
distribution in Plate XXL The three surfaces approximate the nor- 
mal surface of distribution. The first one is long drawn out: the 
effect obtained when the examination is too difficult. The low grades 
show the same fact. The second distribution is skewed — most of the 
grades are bunched at the upper end. This is characteristic of too 
easy an examination or one where nearly all could answer the ques- 
tions in the alloted time. If the time had been cut in half the distribu- 
tion would have resembled that of the third examination. 

If we followed the old scheme of marking where, say, 60 was the 
passing mark, we would, in the first examination, if we were true to 

*Max Meyer, The Administration of College Grades, School and Society, Oct, 23. 1915. 

••Report in School and Society, March 1, 1918, by Headmaster Ferrand. 



ISO 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



our Standards and had the requisite courage, fail all but one in the 
cla,ss. In the second examination we would pass every one, and in the 
third we would fail 17, or 71^0 of the class. Averaging the three 
sets of grades we obtain the results given at the bottom of Plate XXI. 
These grades would necessitate our failing 14 members of the class, or 
58%. If the passing grade were 75 but one of the class would pass. 
If it were 50 then 7 would fail, or 29%. 



^ 






i! 



r 


D 


C 


B 


A 


. 


till if 


lU » It 1 


7 S 




at 


ZtUii 


4$ tif i 


» y 5 2 


1 


f C 3 A 






ZAtl 










i1 2t 


IS 








,i It, 


irl3 






if 


7 9 


ii. h 


ii 


zi 


If i to 


3 5 


z t 


1 




c 


B A 

1 






j5 ih 










a, it iS 








ZiU 


z» 1 f 


It s 




..,j\i 


13 .7 i^ 


H • Z 


10 i 1 iZ 


5 


f P C B h 






>i 










ly 








It 


,S 








l\ 


u »f 


MS 




It 


u 


.0 i 


y 3 




Zh 


JUL 


lUJL 


i z 


1 






Plate Ul» The dZEminati on grades givan in 
Table IZ and the oonrpnted final grades 
plotted in surfacBS of dietribution, to- 
gether with their converaion into Grades 
A, B, C, D and P. 



LESSON 28 151 

This example is an extreme one, but is based on an actual case. 
It is, however, useful here as it points out in an exaggerated form the 
real situation that confronts the majority of instructors in their mark- 
ing of s'cudents' papers. The grades a class actually receives, con- 
sidering the class as a whole, are dependent on the instructor and him 
alone. If the examination is difficult the class as a whole gets low 
grades, if the examination is easy the class as a whole gets high 
grades. Instructors who mark low are generally instructors who 
require much from their students, while instructors who mark high 
do not require enough. Of course, there are many exceptions to this 
rule. To set up a standard such as 60 or 75 as a passing mark is to 
postulate that the instructor is omnipotent, that he knows exactly 
how easy or difficult to make an examination. Such an assumption is 
preposterous. 

The only method now known to education whereby the standard of 
a class may be determined is to assume that the average student in one 
class is equal to the average student in another. This assumption 
is correct remarkably often, as determined by actual investigation. 
When this is done, the middle half of the class, regardless of whether 
they obtain 30, 85, or 50, are graded C. The upper fourth are graded 
A or B, and the lower fourth, D or F. Just how that is done is inA- 
cated in Plate XXI. Theoretically 3% should receive an A and an 
equal number an F. In actual practice, an instructor should feel 
free to give no A or F, or several, depending on the circumstances of 
the case. On the basis of Plate XXI, 

I student would receive an A, or 4% 
6 students would receive a B, or 25% 
10 students would receive a C, or 42% 
5 students would receive a D, or 21% 
2 students would receive an F, or 8% 

The A and F grades must depend on circumstances. 

In this particular case Student i is so far ahead that he alone 
would be given an "A" unless the work of the class, including I's 
work, was not very good. In the same way no grade of "F" might be 
given if the work of 23 and 24 was acceptable ; or if the work was poor 
19 might also be given an "F." But in the long run, the instructor 
should give grades approximately as follows: — A-3^, B-22%, C-50%. 
D-22% and F-3%. 

Hotv to Grade Papers. There are undoubtedly many good methods 
of grading a student's paper. Circumstances will determine whether 
one will read the whole paper thru and grade it as a whole, or whether 
one will grade each part and then total the parts. The two give 



152 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



about the same result. Regardless of how the papers are individually 
seored, when tliat operation is done, one should convert the temporary 
grades into the grades A, B, C, D, and P. Divide the class into four 
fairly equal groups. Grade the first group A and B, the two middle 
groups C, and the fourth group D and F. If there are any exceptionally 
good or bad papers grade them A, or F, accordingly. 

Some instructors find the easiest method is to read the paper thru, 
judge its total value and place it in one of seven piles according to its 
merit. When all are finished the piles are readjusted if the first two 
do not contain approximately 25%, the next three 50% and the last 
two 25%. They are then graded, respectively, A. B, C+, C, C — , D 
and F. Practically nothing is gained by the subdivision of Group C 
into three sub-divisions, except to make the instructor feel he is 
doing a more accurate job. 

Hozv to Record Grades. The practical problem arises, how shall 
I keep my record book? In Table XII are presented three methods 
of keeping a class-record. The first method consists in grading in 



TABLE XII. 



EXAMINATION GRADES, GIVEN IN TABLE IX, AVER- 
AGED BY THREE DIFFERENT METHODS 



Stu- 


FIRST METHO D 


SECOND METHOD 


THIRD METHOD 










By 


















By 


dent 


1st 


2nd 


3rd 


Av 


let- 
ters 


1st 


2nd 


3rd 


Av 


1st 


2nd 


3rd 


Av 


let- 
ters 


1 


60 


100 


70 


77 


A 


A 


A 


B 


A i 


4 


4 


3 


3.7 


A 


2 


55 


90 


55 


67 


B 


B 


B 


C 


B 1 


3 


3 


2 


2.7 


B 


3 


SO 


80 


80 


70 


B 


B 


C 


A 


B 


3 


2 


4 


3.0 


B 


4 


45 


95 


55 


65 


B 


B 


B 


C 


B 


3 


3 


2 


2.7 


B 


5 


45 


85 


70 


67 


B 


B 


C 


B 


B 


3 


2 


3 


2.7 


B 


6 


40 


05 


50 


62 


B 


B 


B 


C 


B 


3 


3 


2 


2.7 


B 


7 


40 


80 


SO 


57 


C 


B 


C 


C 


C 


3 


2 


2 


2.3 


C 


8 


35 


70 


65 


57 


C 


C 


D 


B 


C 


2 


1 


3 


2.0 


C 


9 


35 


85 


45 


55 


C 


C 


C 


C 


C 


2 


2 


2 


2.0 


C 


10 


30 


75 


60 


55 


C 


C 


D 


B 


C 


2 


1 


3 


2.0 


C 


11 


30 


80 


50 


53 


C 


C 


C 


C 


C 


2 


2 


2 


2.0 


C 


12 


30 


90 


75 


65 


B 


c 


B 


B 


B 


2 


3 


3 


2.7 


B 


13 


25 


95 


30 


50 


C 


c 


B 


D 


C 


2 


3 


1 


2.0 


C 


14 


25 


90 


60 


58 


C 


c 


B 


B 


B 


2 


3 


3 


2.7 


B 


15 


20 


90 


55 


S3 


C 


c 


B 


C 


C 


2 


3 


2 


2.3 


C 


16 


20 


85 


55 


S3 


C 


c 


C 


C 


C 


2 


2 


2 


2,0 


C 


17 


20 


80 


35 


45 


D 


c 


C 


D 


D 


2 


2 


1 


1.7 


D 


18 


IS 


100 


50 


55 


C 


D 


A 


C 


C 




4 


2 


2.3 


C 


19 


15 


65 


40 


40 


D 


D 


D 


D 


D 




1 


1 


1.0 


D 


20 


10 


80 


45 


45 


D 


D 


C 


C 


D 




2 


2 


1.7 


D 


21 


10 


85 


35 


43 


D 


D 


C 


D 


D 




2 


1 


1.3 


D 


22 


5 


85 


45 


45 


D 


D 


C 


C 


D 




2 


2 


1.7 


D 


23 


5 


60 


30 


32 


F 


D 


F 


D 


F 




1 


1 


0.7 


F 


24 





75 


75 


33 


F 


F 


D 


F 


F 











0.3 


F 



LESSON 28 153 

terms of figures from o to 100, recording these figures and finally 
averaging them. This method has little justification. The manipula- 
tions of large figures takes too long a time, even when one has an 
adding machine at his disposal. 

The second method consists of recording the letter grades. It is 
satisfactory, except when it comes to averaging up the records. With 
only three examinations to average there is no trouble, but if one has 
to average ten grades, how shall he do it? For example, how would 
you finally grade students who received (a) A, B, C, C, D, B, C, C, F, 
and B and (b) B, B, C, D, B, D, C, C, C, and A? The easiest method 
of keeping one's record book and a method as reliable as any other is 
that shown as the third method in Table XII. The letters A, B, C, D, 
and F are represented in the record-book by the figures 4, 3, 2, i, 2nd o, 
respectively. (Figures are easier to write than letters to begin with, and 
they can readily be averaged. Contrast the labor involved in averaging 




Plata XZ.II. ThG finel 
grades, computed accord- 
ing to the third methorl 
in Table XII, plotted in 
a surface of distribu- 
tion. 

them with that of averaging the figures employed in fhe first method.) 
Averages between o and 0.5 would then be graded F; between 0.5 and 
1.5, D; between 1.5 and 2.5, C; between 2.5 and 3.5, B; and between 
3.5 and 4, A. This scheme tends, however, to give too many C's and 
too few of the other grades. A better method is as follows : Before 
making out one's final grades, plot the average grades in a surface 
of distribution as shown in Plate XXII, atd award the final 
grades according to their position on that surface. 

A comparison of the letter grades awarded in Plates XXI and XXII 
shows that they are almost identical. The laborious attempt at great 
accuracy pursued in the first method of recording grades (See Table 



154 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

XII and Plate XXI) gives practically the same results as those ob- 
tained by the easier third method (See Table XII and Plate XXII). And 
in the case of Student 14, after all, which is the fairer grade for him, 
a "C" or a "B"? 

CONCLUSION. 

We are graded in life not according to some ideal standard of per- 
fection, but in comparison with our fellows, particularly our competi- 
tors. Edison is great, not because he approximates perfection but be- 
cause he is superior to other men. Our minister, or lawyer, or music 
teacher, or grocer is superior or inferior in comparison with other min- 
isters, lawyers, music teachers, or grocers we know. We have no 
standards of perfection as such. Even in the few cases where we do 
have standards, as in track athletics, we honor the winner of the hun- 
dred vard dash in a great track meet, even if the time was only 10 1-5 
seconds, altho that is far from the world's record. 



LESSON 29 155 

LESSON 29~HOW MAY ONE DIAGNOSE THE ABILITY OF 

CHILDREN? 

In Lessons 23 and 24 we made a general study of the causes of 
individual differences. The general laws underlying this subject were 
illustrated witl results obtained by averaging the data from a class 
of adults, a class of normal 4th Grade children, and a class of mentally 
defective children. These average results were treated as tho they 
we're representative of three individuals of varying degrees of hered- 
itary endowmeit and training. 

Today we wish to carry this study further. We shall have before us 
the actual learniag curves of several children and we shall endeavor to 
ascertain what ve can about the hereditary equipment and previous 
training of these children from the curves themselves. The lesson 
will serve as a re^tiew in the sense that previously learned material on 
this subject will leeds be recalled to mind ; it will also serve as an 
advance lesson in that what has been previously learned must now 
be utilized in a nev way. 

In Plates XXIIl to XXVI are given the individual learning curves 
of eight members of the 4th Grade class previously studied in Lesson 
24. They are all diawn so as to show the number of problems solved 
correctly in one minite. (They actually worked two minutes and the 
scores reported here are one-half of what they did in that interval of 
time.) The solid line represents the learning in Test B— addition, 
while the broken line represents the learning in Test BX — multipli- 
cation. In the first arve (A) the little girl advanced from 24 prob- 
lems in addition to 40 in one minute and from 16 problems to 31 in 
multiplication. 

ASSIGNMENT. 

1 . In the light of wlat you' already know about how heredity and 
training affect learning curves endeavor to formulate just as definite 
comparisons as you can concerning these eight children. Arrange 
them in order according to their previous training, also in order 
according to their innate ability. Defend your position. 

2. Which pupil, if any, vould you put in a lower grade? Why? 

3. Do you note any peciliarities in these curves — characteristics 
that you have not previously discovered? If so, explain them. 

(Three of the learning curves in addition stop before 15 trials were 
made. This is due to the fac that the children were transferred to 
a subtraction test as soon as ttey could do the whole addition blank 
(i. e., 80 problems) correctly in 'wo minutes.) 

Write up your results in the isual way and hand them in at the 
next class hour. 



156 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY tOR T^CH^S 




LESSON 29 



157 




^ 5 



iL 




q o 



-^ °« 



5^5 
m « 



LESSON 30— THE EFFECT OF HEREDITY AND TRAINING 

ON LEARNING* 

THE USE OE LEARNING CURVES IN TEACHING. 

In Plates XXIII to XXVI are given the learning- curves of eight 
children from the fourth Grade, and in Plate XII is given the average 
curve for the entire class. These curves represent the improvement 
that took place in simple addition and multiplication as the result of 
4 minutes of actual school work on 15 different days. There is no 
doubt, however, that many of the children practised on such work 
outside of school. Nevertheless the improvement shown is little less 
than marvelous when compared with what is ordinarily obtained in 
school in such a length of time. It is only fair to add in this connection 
that considerably more than 4 minutes of the school time was consumed 
in the work, since it takes time to give out and collect test papers. 
Besides, the children were called upon to correct their papers and plot 
their own learning curves. But part of this additional time must be 
credited to teaching the children how to draw learning curves and 
their meaning — a most valuable lesson. 

Much of the surprising gain registered is due not to the use of 
the test-blanks themselves, altho they are valuable adjuncts to teach- 
ing, but to the fact that the children could see day by day just how 
they were improving. They showed the greatest interest possible 
in the work and long after the writer had ceased the tests he was 
waylaid by the children and asked to renew them. 

One of the greatest needs today in our educational work is to 
provide adequate means of registering the daily improvement of 
the students. If one can see himself improving he becomes very 
much interested and consequently does very much better work. 
The use of such curves as employed here enables a child not only 
to race against others but to race against himself. If he loafs, his 
curve shows it very clearly; if he works very hard, the curve registers 
that fact. Ordinarily only the superior children can obtain the thrill 
of winning in a scholastic race as school work as usually admin- 
istered. But with the use of learning curves a dull child at the 
bottom of the class may experience the feeling of victory when he 
sees his curve rise. The presence or absence of a feeling of confi- 
dence in oneself may account for many of the successes or failures 
in life. 



•CLASS-HOUR 1 IN CLASS I WRITE UP 



30 Discuss, Lesson 29 

3 I I Experiment, Les. 3 1 I Lesson 3 I 

159 



READ 



Lesson 30 



l6o INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

As an example of just how a learning curve may be used to great 
advantage the following case supplied by Miss Martha Carroll is 
of interest. 

"After a year and a half of unsuccessful attempts to stimulate 
anything worthy of the name of efTort in an eleven year old boy 
pupil, I decided to make an attempt at a learning curve of some sort. 
The subject being music (and violin at that) it semed almost an impossi- 
bility to figure out a method by which a record might be kept and 
exact progress noted. As an exact record of progress made, the 
curve (See Plate XXVII) is a failure, but it accomplished S'ts 
purpose of stimulating an effort. 

"The lessons were 45 minute periods once a week — 30 minutes 
being devoted (approximately) to the lesson assigned the previous 
week and 15 minutes to the new lesson. The record was kept during 
the period of assigned lesson only, any errors in the new lesson being 
left uncounted. 

"The understanding with the pupil was, that for every correction 
I must make during the 30 minute period a mark would be made — 
these marks to be counted and stand for the grade at the end of 
the lesson. It was also agreed that no error noticed, and corrected 
by the pupil should be counted against him. The errors were to 
include those of position, intonation and rhythm — accuracy being 
the sole end in view. 

"At the first lesson where the record was kept I made 40 correc- 
tions during the 30 minutes. For the first time, the child became 
aware of the fact that he did not 'know everything about it,' and that he 
was not 'doing it right'. He became intensely interested, and from 
then on watched like a hawk every mark made against him and was 
very soon seeing his own mistakes and correcting them before I 
had a chance to do so. 

"The first record was made on Feb. 22, 1916, and on May 2^, 1916, 
the final record was made; the score having been reduced from 40 
errors to 5 at the lowest record — and closing with a score of 10 errors. 
That the actual amount of progress made is not evident, may be 
seen from the fact that at the time of the last record fully 3 1-3 times 
as much ground was covered in the 30 minutes as at the time of 
the first record, thus reducing considerably the percentage of errors 
at the final record. 

"The change was entirely one of attitude, for the amount of 
actual practi.se time spent between lessons was ttot increased. 



LESSON 30 



161 



miiitkcs. 




«. t< «v« 



-i **» W4 '^ 



:2 :3 



jL-_s. 



E 



Plate JJCVII. Curve ehowing progress In 
clistinating errors in leeming to plB-g 
the violin. 

"The sudden rise in the curve at the ninth record I attribute to 
a return of the original attitude of self-satisfaction."* 

DIAGNOSIS OP INDIVIDUAL ABILITY ON THE BASIS OF LEARNING CURVES. 

Turning now from a discussion as to the general usefulness of 
learning curves in teaching, let us consider the questions as assigned 
in the last lesson. 

Question i. Arrange the six children in order (a) according to 
their previous training, and (h) according to their innate ability. 
Their initial ability can be taken as a fair representative of their 
previous training. The term "previous training" must needs refer 
not to hours of instruction received, but to the amount of instruction 
that has been absorbed and is now at the disposal of the child. 
According to this interpretation of the tenn a bright child with 
ten hours instruction might make a better initial showing than a 

*A very good example of how such methods have been utilized in industrial work is 
recorded by R. B. Wolf in "The Creative Workman," published by the Technical Asso- 
ciation ef the Pulp and Paper Industry'. 



i62 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



dull child who has had sixty hours instruction. In that case we 
would say the bright child has received greater training. Not so 
much instruction (in hours) has been bestowed upon him, but he 
has absorbed more. With this point in mind we can see all agree in 
arranging the eight children as to previous training in the following 
way: — 

TABLE XIII. SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF EIGHT CHILDREN AC- 
CORDING TO THEIR PREVIOUS TRAINING IN ADDITION 
(B-TEST) AND MULTIPLICATION (BX-TEST) AND 
IN THE TWO TESTS TAKEN TOGETHER 



Addition 


Ml 


jlt 


ipl 


cation 


Two Taken Together 


1. 


S( 


28 




A) 








D 


2. 




^ 






16 


A 


3. 


A 


24 




F) 








C 


4. 


B } 


20 




B 






13 


B 




n\ 




C 






11 


F 


6 


F 


n 




E 






9.5(6) 


H 


7 


E 


8. 


5(4) 


H 






6 


E 


8. 


G 


8 




G 






2 


G 



The curves of E are unusual in that there is such a great gain 
between the first and second trials and between the fourteenth and 
fifteenth. Such a condition is possible but unlikely, especially when 
the rather slow progress between trials two and thirteen is taken 
into consideration. The writer has interpreted the curves to mean 
that the little girl was "rattled" on the first day and so did not do 
what she could do. He has consequently estimated her initial record 
as the average of her first two records, i. e., as 8 i-2 and g i-2 instead 
of 4 and 6. From all that is known of the child this seems to be a 
fairer interpretation than to use the records just as they stand. The 
unusual gain at the last performance suggests cheating. There is 
no way of knowing whether she did or not. Before diagnosing her 
properly further trials should be obtained. As this cannot be done 
we shall have to accept the record as it stands. 

In estimating innate ability one must take into account the slope of 
the curve and how near it approaches the physiological limit ( See Plate 
IX). Of two children having curves of equal slope, the one whose 
curve more nearly reaches the physiological limit is the brighter child. 
With these points in mind the writer would arrange the children for 
innate ability as shown in Table XIV. 



LEISSON 30 



163 



TABLE XIV. SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF EIGHT CHILDREN AC- 
CORDING TO THEIR INNATE ABILITY IN ADDITION 
(B-TEST) AND MULTIPLICATION (BX-TEST) AND 
IN THE TWO TESTS TAKEN TOGETHER 





Addition 


Multiplication 


Two Taken Together 


I. 


D 


D 


D 


2. 


C 


C 


C 


3- 


B 


E 


B 


4- 


A 


A 


A 


5- 


E 


B 


E 


6. 


F 


F 


F 


7. 


G 


H 


H 


8. 


H 


G 


G 



In estimatingf the average of the two, the fact that E, A, and B were 
about equal in their gains in multiplication but not in addition influenced 
the writer in arranging them finally in the order B, A, and E.* 

Before passing to a consideration of questions 2 and 3 in Lesson 29, 
it will be worth while to check up the estimate given above with other 
records of these children. Their scholastic record as based on their 
final grades for that semiester and the opinion of their teacher and 
principal, who knew them personally, ranks them as follows in the 
class of 28 children. 



*L. L. Thurstone in The Learning Curve Equation, Psychological Review Monograph, 
1919, discusses the theory of learning curves and suggests a formula to cover them. 
The writer has found the following very simple formula will enable one to estimate fairly 
well the relative innate ability of children on the basis of their performance: — ability 
= Vj (Initial Score + Final Score) XGain. 

This equation takes into account the steepness of the slope (gain) and in a very 
crude way the approximation of the curve to the physiological limit. Using this for- 
mula we would obtain the rank of these children and their scores as given in the Table 
below. In order to use this formula in the case of the three children B, C, and D it is 
necessary to estimate how many problems they would have done in Test B if they had 
been permitted to work at the test for 15 trials. The estimates made are as follows: B, 
48 problems at trial 15: C, 51 problems; and D, 5 7 problems. The estimate for D in 
multiplication for the fifteenth trial is 41 problems. 



Table Showing Arrangement of Children According to Innate Ability as Based on the 

Above Formula. 



' 














AVERAGE 






ADDITION 






MULTIPLICATION 




OF TWO 


1 


D, 42.5 


X29 


= 1232* 


D. 28.5 


X25 


-712 


D, 972 


i. 


B. 34 


2S 


952 


C, 23 


24 


552 


C, 730 


i 


C, 39.5 


23 


908 


E, 19 


19.5 


370 


B, 616 


4 


A, 31 


16 


496 


A, 23.5 


15 


352 


A, 424 


i 


F, 19 


12 


228 


B. 20 


14 


280 


E, 286 


6 


E, 15 


13.5 


202 


F, 21.5 


1 1 


236 


F, 264 


y 


G, 11.5 


3 


34 


H, 14 


16 


224 


H, 112 


8 


H, 20 





G. 6.5 


9 


58 


G, 46 



♦This figure is obtained as follows: — The sum of the initial record (28) plus final 
record (5 7, estimated) is 85. That amount divided by 2 and multiplied bv 29 (the 
gain. i. e.. 57 — 26) equals 1232. 



164 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



Children 


Rank 


in Class 


Promotion Record 


A 




I St 


Passed to 5 A 


B 




2d 


'•' 


C 




3d 


<< 


D 




4th 


« 


E 




25th 


Passed to 5B 


F 




26th 


Passed on condition 


G 




27th 


Dropped out of school 


H 




28th 


Passed on condition 



At the time these Learning Curves were obtained the class was 
tested with the Courtis Arithmetic Tests (See Lesson 26 for reference 
to these tests). Their relative standing computed on the basis of a 
class of 100, instead of 28 would be : — 



Courtis Arithmetic 
Tests 

Addition 
Subtraction 
Multiplication 
Average 



A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


24 


26 


39 


II 


86 


64 


89 


83 


7 


29 


57 


32 


92 


88 


89 


26 


50 


51 


47 


4 


75 


92 


94 


75 



27 25 48 16 84 81 91 61 



A here stands 24th in her class in the addition test, 7th in subtraction 
and SOth in multiplication, averaging 27th. The relative rank of five 
•of the eight children was obtained a year later ; the other three children 
"having left school. Again these results are expressed as the ranking 
of the child on the basis of a class of 100. 



Courtis Arithmetic 


A 


R 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G H 


Tests 
















Addition 


— 


— 


46 


4 


95 


— 


— 95 


Subtraction 


— 


— 


14 


21 


82 


— 


— 97 


Multiplication 


— 


— 


60 


13 


97 


— 


— 75 


Division 


— 


— 


13 


23 


98 


— 


- 83 


Woody Arithmetic 
















Tests 
















Addition 


— 


— 


9 


63 


75 


— 


— 73 


Subtraction 


— 


— 


10 


53 


81 


— 


— 100 


Multiplication 


4 


— 


13 


— 


60 


— 


— 99 


Division 


4 


— 


3 


29 


59 


— 


— 92 



LESSON 30 165 



Strong Arithmetic 
Tests 




Addition (B) 
Multiplication (BX) 


19 - 
15 - 


- 7 

- 15 


19 
3 


92 — 
19 — 


— 7 

— ID 


Average of 10 Tests 


II - 


- 19 


23 


76 - 


— 73 



Clearly, then, learning curves such as produced by A, B, C, and D 

are typical of bright capable children while those curves produced by 
E, F, G, and H are typical of children who stand near the bottom of 
their class. The curve of G is the poorest from the point of initial 
score or slope. This child never belonged in the 4th Grade and so 
dropped out of the school as there was no room for him in the 3rd 
Grade. 

Question 2. Which pupil, if any. ivould you put in a lower grade? 
Why? This question has already been answered above. G shows 
markedly inferior knowledge of addition and multiplication and his 
curves show that he cannot learn rapidly. In fact he learns more 
slowly than other children in the same grade. There is then no chance 
of his catching up with his class. Instead he is going to be left farther 
and farther behind. 

Question 3. Do you note any peculiarities in these curves — charac- 
teristics that you have not previously discovered? If so, explain them. 
H's addition curve is very striking and unusual. As she improved in 
multiplication she lost in addition. In this instance there was a clear 
case of interference, i. e., the habit of "seeing 4X3 and thinking 12" 
was interfering with the habit of "seeing 4-J-3 and thinking 7." She 
continued in this condition for some time afterwards. Later in the 
year she was put thru another practise series. The addition again 
showed an interference effect from the multiplication. Finally she 
overcame this interference and eventually after three months of indi- 
vidual drill reached a speed of 40 problems in one minute in both 
addition and multiplication and a good speed in subtraction and column 
addition. But she has shown no ability to solve ordinary problems in 
arithmetic. A year later she made the records recorded above, showing 
that she had retained what she had learned in the B and BX Tests but 
\\ as extremely poor in more complicated arithmetic work. Our present 
diagnosis is that she will never be able to solve problems requiring 
reasoning. 

THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE PROBLEM OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES TO 

EDUCATION. 

The problem of individual differences is a very big problem in the 
educational world and must be taken into consideration in teaching and 



l66 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

administrative work. Children differ very materially. Such differ- 
ences are caused jointly by heredity and by training. The differences 
in training can to a large degree be taken care of thru putting those 
with extra training ahead of those with less training. But the differ- 
ences due to heredity cannot be disposed of so easily. Superiority in 
heredity means that the child is going to advance rapidly, inferiority 
in heredity means that the child is going to advance slowly. This is 
shown diagrammatically in Plate IX. It means that any class is 
always going to fly apart. The more training a group has the more 
the children are going to become unlike. Training does not make 
people alike, it makes them unlike. The bright child gets all of his 
lesson, the dull child but half. The next day the bright child gets all 
of the new lesson, the dull child cannot do as well as he did before, 
because part of the new lesson depends on that part of the first lesson 
he didn't get. He consequently gets less than half of the second lesson. 
So as time continues the gap between the two widens. 

As things are conducted today, average children are fairly well taken 
care of. The pace set is too slow for the bright children and too fast 
for the dull children. The bright children are not encouraged to work 
hard. They can easily get their lessons in a few minutes "any old 
time." The dull are discouraged for they can't possibly keep pace. 
What is needed today is a system so elastic that all can keep working 
at their own pace. Some advocate here that the pace be set for the 
dull child and the better children be persuaded to do more work on 
the side and in a better manner. The dull child will then get the 
sheer essentials, the others a richer and richer course depending on 
their ability. But how is such a course to be conducted? Others 
advocate various schemes for rapid or slow promotion depending: on 
the different children. 

The Courtis Standard Practise Tests. In this connection the Courtis 
Standard Practise Tests should be borne in mind. These tests are 
different from the Courtis Arithmetic Tests already mentioned several 
times. 

The first two tests and the record sheet covering these tests are 
shown in Plates XXVIII and XXIX. On the first day every child is 
given a copy of lesson i. Suppose it is a 4th Grade class. The children 
are then allowed 6 minutes to do the lesson.* At the end of the six 
minutes the papers are corrected and each child records his 
record in his Record Book. On the second day, if any child finished 
the first lesson correctly within the six minutes he is not required to 

•The other grades are given a shorter time. The 5th grade is allowed 4vi min.; the 
6th grade 4 min.. the 7th grade, 3 Vi min., and the 8th grade, 3 min. 



LESSON 30 167 

do Lesson i over again but is supplied with Lesson 2 instead. The 
remainder of the class repeat Lesson i. So it goes thruout the year. 
It is conceivable that after forty-eight days a very bright child would 
have entirely finished all 48 lessons whereas a very dull child would 
still be on the first lesson. Professor Courtis, however, advocates that 
after several failures, individual instruction be given the backward 
child and if that is not sufficient to bring him up, that he be allowed 
to go to the next lesson. In Plate XXIX are shown two individual 
records on the one sheet. (Ordinarily only one record would appear 
on a page.) N has required 15 days in which to finish Lesson i. The 

LESSON No. l-ADDmON LESSON No. 2-SUBrrRACnON 



Nam^ 
















CnA. 














, 










m 






6 & 


4 


2 


S 


6 


4 


3 


4 


4 


9 


S 


3 4 


7 


4 


i 


7 


2 


6 


9 


2 


6 





l_ T_ 


J_ 


6_ 


^ 


2 


_8^ 


_6 


^ 


8^ 


6_ 




a 










10 










1 6 


3 


7 


7 


1 


s 


S 


S 


1 


8 


7 


8 1 


4 


2 





7 


2 


1 


9 


3 


7 


5 


1 1. 


9_ 


JL 


_I_ 


7_ 

so 


6_ 


9_ 


2_ 


9_ 


_8 


2_ 


6 S 


3 


7 


8 


1 


6 


8 


6 


4 


3 


7 


5 2 


9 


S 





8 


7 


I 


2 


8 


8 


6 


L jL 


± 


4_ 


_8 


2. 


6_ 


_3_ 


4S 


£ 


7_ 


_6_ 


9 7 


4 


9 


9 


S 


5 


2 


4 


7 


3 


8 


3 


4 


7 


6 


6 


1 


4 


5 


2 


9 


9 


L i. 


8_ 


3_ 


_5_ 


_9 


6^ 


8_ 


9. 


.8^ 


_9 


2_ 


» 










K 










« 


4 3 


4 


5 


9 


4 


4 


1 


S 


9 


6 


5 


7 4 


9 


1 


7 


9 


3 


3 


1 


2 


5 


4 


4 8 


7 


8 





3 


1 


8 


5 


3 


8 


2_ 



Name. 


















19 
_« 


32 

_2 


14 

_2 


32 
_3 


12' 
_2 


23 
_9 


35 

_2 


13 
_1 


31 

_4 


15'° 
_S 


17 

_2 


33 

_7 


19 

_8 


30 
_2 


27' 
_7 


16 
_2 


26 

_2 


2« 
_5 


21 
_8 


37 
_9 


12 


29 
_5 


25 


28 


18 
_3 


27 
_6 


26 


29 
_9 


18 
_5 


31 
_6 


20 
_9 


32 

_6 


14 

_4 


17 

_2 


37 
_8 


24 
_7 


13 

_2 


38 
_8 


31 

_2 


27" 
_5 


21 


19 
_1^ 


24 
_5 


14 

_3 


30 
_3 


21 
_2 


33 
_8 


20 
_1^ 


29 
_3 




u 
32 
_4 


15 
_4 


26 
J6 


30 
_6 



89S8S3359138 u „ 

4 3 8 3 6 3 6 7 6 9 6 18 28 14 29 11 32 23 15 

0_6^S_5^2_*_l_±±J_*_$_ _2 _9 _1^ _4 _1^ _9 _6 J^ 

Plate XXXVIII. Courtis Standard Practice Tests.* 

solid line traces the number of problems he did each day and the 
broken line the number he got correct. M, on the other hand, finished 
Lesson I in five days and Lesson 2 in two more days. (As there are 
but 61 problems in Lesson 2, 61 is of course the standard set in that 
lesson.) His record for Lesson 3 would be scored on another page 
and so does not appear here. He finished up four lessons while M 
was doing one. 

*The latest edition of these practice tests shows Lesson No. I as above. But Lesson 
No. 2 now comprises 70 problems instead of 61. The Graph Sheet in Plate XXIX is also 
from an earlier edition of the "Student's Record and Practice." (By permission of 
World Book Companj'.) 



l68 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR Te;aCHE;rS 



GRAPH SHEET 

FOR 



Lesson No. 1 




. 72 examples 




Lesson No. 2 




. 61 


examples 


LESSON 


NO 


























n 


7» 


c 


»•"-"*• 


r^lTS 


TS 


Tl 


71 


Tl 


Tl 


Tl 


71 


/^ 


.^tf 


Tl 


•" 


Tl 


/71 


Tl 


Tl 


Tl 


71 


71 


Tl 


Tl 


^L/ 


rtt. 


/»« 


10 


TO • 


TO 


f» 


TO 


TO 


TO 


70 


70 


70 


TO 


TO 


n 


9» 


70 


6* 


«/ 


69/ 


' 69 


69 


69 


69 


69 


69 


69 


69 


69 


As 


/69 


69 


ss 


^ 


S* 


6S 


6S 


68 


60 


6S 


6S 


68 


68 


68/ 


' 6S 


6S 


68 


It 


f" 


.ST 

'86 


8T 


ST 


6T 


ST 


ST 


67 


6T 


6T 


r 


67/ 


67 


6T 


ss 1 


fss . 


66 


86 


86 


SS 


66 


66 


66 


66 


*6 


«• 


68 1 


66 




6S . 
64 ' 


SS 


68 


66 


68 


68 


68 


68 


68 


68 i 


fss 


/^ 


68 


68 


84 


64 


64 


64 


84 


64 


64 


/**< 


«♦ / 


64 


64 


64 


fi^/ 


«S 


63 


83 


63 


63 


63 


!i/ 


"^ 


63/ 


68/ 


63 


63 


63 


«/ 


«•- 


SI 


6S 


61 


SS 


T^ 


•• ^ 


^ 


61 > 


S.6l/ 


6* 


63 


61 


61 


J 


/si 


61 


61 


81 


s*— 


r^ 


61 


61 


V/ 


61 


61 


61 


61 


** 1 


!*• 


60 


60 


SO 


^'V' 

«/ 


%0 


/60 


60 


z- 


•» 


60 


60 


60 


80 


s» I 


's> 


S9 


SS 


89 


'* / 


r S9 


89 


89 


89 


89 


SS 


SO 


mS?/ 


SS 


SS 


SS 


S« 


88/ 


B8 


68/ 


88 


SS 


88 


8« 


88 


88 


ST 


ST 


ST 


ST 


st/ 


SI 


m 


87 


ST 


8T 


67 


87 


ST 


.6/ 


SS 


SS 


66 


86 


SS 


*n 


86/ 


66 


66 


86 


88 


86 


88 


86 


81, 
64' 


SS 


se 


SS 


SS 


88 


f* 


S» 


66 


88 


68 


89 


88 


68 


88 


S4 


S4 


64 


84 


84 


fit 


/»♦ 


64 


84 


84 


84 


84 


84 


84 


m 


sa 


S3 


SS 


SS 


S3 / 


S/ 


61 


S3 


S3 


63 


83 


SS 


S3 


88 


«3 


SS 


SS 


SI 


U 


ss/ 


81 


81 


63 


81 


61 


81 


81 


81 


Sl 


SI 


SI 


SI 


/*• 


-^ 


•r 


8! 


Bt 


81 


61 


81 


81 


81 


SI 


SO 


so 


SS 


so 


/so 


^W 


,80 


SO 


SO 


SO 


SO 


SO 


80 


SO 


SO 


4« 


4« 


49 


49 


/" 


49 


49 


49 


49 


49 


49 


49 


49 


4t 


u 


4S 


4S 


t»J 


' 48 


4S , 


4S 


4S 


4S 


48 


48 


4S 


48 


48 


48 


4T 


4T 


4* 


W 


«T 


46 ' 


4T 


47 


47 


47 


4T 


4T 


4T 


47 


4T 


4« 


4S 


" ( 


f**- 


SS 


46 


46 


46 


46 


46 


46 


46 


U 


48 


4S 


4S 


48/ 


4S 


48 


44' 


48 


4S 


48 


48 


48 


48 


48 


48 


48 


44 


41 


'V 


44 


44 


44 


44 


44 


44 


44 


44 


44 


44 


44 


(« 


43 


r 


43 


43 


S* 


43 


4S 


43 


43 


49 


43 


U 


43 


4S 


4a 


4S 


f^ 


48 


41 


' 41 


41 


41 


41 


41 


41 


41 


41 


U 


41 


41 


41 ; 


l^ 


41 


41 


41 


41 


41 


41 


41 


41 


U 


41 


41 


40 




40 


40 


-J? 


40 


40 


40 


40 


40 


40 


40 


40 


40 


40 


SS 


St 


•• 


89 


SS 


39 


S9 


39 


39 


39 


39 


39 


39 


SS 


sV 


SS 


/J? 


SS 


SS 


SS 


3S 


SS 


38 


36 


3S 


38 


SS 


SS 


ST 


ST 


ST 


ST 


ST 


39 


ST 


37 


87 


37 


ST 


37 


St 


SS 


Jif 


S/ 


SS 


86 


SS 


36 


36 


86 


36 


36 


S6 


36 


36 


38 


3S 


n* 


SS 


38 


38 


SS 


38 


SS 


83 




38 


38 


88 


38 


S4 / 


'^^ 


S/ 


u 


S4 


S4 


34 


34 


84 


34 




34 


34 


84 


34 


.s^ 


33 


SS 


S3 


S3 


SS 


SS 


i* 


S3 




S3 


33 


33 


38 


SI 


•t 


33 


SI 


31 


SI 


31 


S3 


31 




81 


SI 


31 


81 


'^:t. 


SI y 81 


31 


SI 


31 


31 


31 


31 


31 




31 


31 


31 


81 


■ •» 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


SO 


30 


30 


30 


30 


SO 


SO 


30 


lit 


a* 


3(1 


Sth 






































TRIALS 















INSTROCnONS: After each trial, in the column corresponding to the number of the 
trial, draw a short hoiizontal line through your score in examples tried. Using a ruler, 
draw a heavy line from this point to the score marked in the previous column. In 
like manner draw a curve for Rights, using a heavy broken line. More than one graph 
can be drawn on this page; see Model, page 4. When you have completed the lesson 
successfully, hand in this record book with your paper. 

Plate XXIX. Graph sheet. Showing record of two 
children, M and H. M finishes lesson No. 1 in 
5 days and lesson llo, 8 in two days more. N re- 
quires 15 days to oorflplete Lesson No 1 in the 
allotted time. 



The point to be noted about this scheme is that it provides a method 
by which the entire class can be put at arithmetical work and at the 
same time the lessons may be varied in accordance with individual 
differences. Moreover each child plots his own learning curves and 
so knows just how he is advancing day by djay. He has the 
stimulation of racing against others and also against himself. 



LESSON 31 169 

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PROVIDED FOR IN THIS COURSE IN PSYCHOLOGY. 

An entirely different scheme for providing for individual differences 
is utilized in this course. Each lesson contains as many "leads" as 
even the best student will have time to follow. Every minute devoted 
to study adds something additional to his training or store of infor- 
mation. At the same time each lesson is easy enough so that the 
poorest student, deserving only to pass the course, can obtain sufficient 
grounding in the fundamentals of the course to pass and go on. The 
better tlie student, the more thorough a grasp of the material will be 
obtained, but all will get a worth while amount. If two or three times 
as much time was devoted to the course, the poorer students would get 
more from the course, but the better students would not be kept busy 
and so would not get the maximum training they have a right to 
receive in return for their tuition and time. 

LESSON 31— HOW MAY SUCH PROPOSITIONS AS "RELA- 
TIONSHIP OF INITIAL TO FINAL PROFICIENCY" 
BE ACCURATELY INVESTIGATED? 

In Lesson 21 a preliminary study was made as to whether those who 
were best at the start were best at the end in such training as doing 
the mirror-drawing experiment. After we had arranged the ten indi- 
viduals A to J (See Table IV) with respect to their initial and final 
abilities we found it difficult to express just what the relationship 
between the two orders was. In this lesson we shall attempt a more 
satisfactory study of this point. 

So far we have considered the average and the average deviation as 
measurements which help us in our study of individual differences. 
Still another measurement is needed: — the coefficient of correlation. 
This measurement is needed when we attempt to compare the order 
of superiority of a group of individuals at one time with their order 
obtained at another time. For example, in the results obtained from 
Lesson 21. just what is the relationship between the two orders? On 
the whole, we can see that those who are best at the start are best at 
the end ; still there are exceptions. And if, instead of B holding ist and 
4th positions, respectively, he held 1st and loth positions (i. e.. had 
a final score of 90), we would find it extremely difficult to state just 
how this . change had really affected the entire relationship between 
the two sets of figm^es. Here are these two cases : — 



170 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



CASE I. 






( 


:ase 


II. 






(.Based on Actual Data) 




(B's 


Data 


Alt 


ered) 




Initial Ability Final 


Ability 


Initial 


Ability 






Final 


Ability 


B (76) G 


(35) 


B 


(76) 






G 


(35) 


I (129) J 


(36) 


I 


(129) 






J 


(36) 


J (131) I 


(40) 


J 


(131) 






I 


(40) 


C (210) B 


(50) 


C 


(210) 






E 


(52) 


E (216) E 


(52) 


E 


(216) 






C 


(58) 


A (232) C 


(58) 


A 


(232) 






H 


(60) 


G (283) H 


(60) 


G 


(283) 






A 


(61) 


F (286) A 


(61) 


F 


(286) 






F 


(70) 


D (363) F 


(70) 


D 


(363) 






D 


(85) 


H (701) D 


(85) 


H 


(701) 






B 


(90) 



From a study of the two sets of relationships it is clear that there 
is a closer relationship in the first case than in the second. But it is 
impossible to estimate this diflFerence by looking at all the figures. 
VVe need some clear and definite method of expressing such relation- 
ships. This is exactly what the coefficient of correlation gives us. 
Below is an example fully worked out. Study it carefully so as to be 
able to obtain the coefficient of correlation in similar examples yourself. 

HOW TO OBTAIN A COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION. 

The several steps involved in obtaining a coefficient of correlation 
are as follows : — 

1. Arrange your individuals in order of merit in the two cases to 
be studied. (If two or more individuals are tied, then the following 
scheme is to be followed. Suppose 10 children received these grades 
in arithmetic— A, 100; B, 90; C, 90; D, 85: E, 80; F, 80; G, 80; H, 80; 
I, 75; and J, 70. Then rank A as i; B and C as 2.Vi (i. e., the 
average of 2 and 3) ; D as 4; E. F, G, and H as 61/2 (i- e., the 
average of 5, 6, 7 and 8) ; I as 9 ; and J as 10). 

2. Obtain the diff"erences in the rank of each individual in the two 
ratings (d). 

3. Square these differences (d^) 

4. Obtain the sum of these squared differences ( S^d^) 

5. Multiply this sum by 6 (61 d^) 

6. Count up the number of individuals being studied (n), square 
this number (n^), subtract i frotn that (n^ — i), and then multiply the 
difference by the number (n(n2 — i) ). 

7. Divide the amount obtained in the 5th step by the amount obtained 
in the 6th step. 

8. Subtract this decimal from i.oo, observing algebraic signs. This 
final decimal is the coefficient of correlation. 

Here is the solution of the coefficient of correlation of the first set 
of figures. 



LUSSON 31 



171 



Initial Ability 


Final Ability 


Individual 
Considered 

B 


Differences 
in Rank 


Differences 


Rank 


Individual 


Rank 

I 


Individual 
G 


Squared 


1 


B 


1—4 = —3 


9 


2 


I 


2 


J 


I 


2—3 = —I 


I 


J 


J 


3 


I 


J 


3—2 = I 


1 


4 


C 


4 


B 


C 


4—6 = —2 


4 


5 
6 


E 
A 


5 
6 


E 
C 


E 

A 


5—5 = 
6—8 = ^ 



4 


7 
8 


G 
F 


7 
8 


H 

A 


G 
F 


7-1 = 6 


36 
1 


9 


D 


9 


F 


D 


8—9 = —I 


I 


10 


H 


10 

1 


D 


H 


9 — 10= — I 
10—7 = 3 
Total 


9 
66 



Formula for coefficient of correlation (the letter "r" is the common 
abbreviation for this term) : — 

6 S d^ d2=the differences squared, illustrated by 
the ten squared deviations in the last 



r=i- 



n (n^ — i) 
6X66 

10 (100 — i) 
396 



r=i- 



990 



column. 

2d^=-the sum of all the squared deviations, 
as 66 above. 

n=the number of individuals being con- 
sidered, as 10 in this case, the 10 indi- 
dividuals, A — J. 



r==i — 0.40 
r= -j-0-6o 

The coefficient of correlation (r) between initial ability and final 
ability in the case of these 10 individuals is +0.60. 

Here is the solution of the coefficient of correlation of the second 
set of figures above. 





Initial 


Final 


Difference 


Difference? 


Rank 


Ability 


Ability 


in Rank 


Squared 


I 


B 


G 


—9 


81 


2 


I 


J 




I 


3 


J 


I 




I 


4 


C 


E 


J 


I 


5 


E 


C 




I 


6 


A 


H 


I 


I 


7 
8 


G 
F 


A 
F 


6 



36 



9 


D 


D 








!• 


H 


B 


4 


16 
138 



172 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

6 Z d2 6X138 828 

r==i =1 =1 =1 — Q.84=-f 0-i6 

n (n^ — i) iq(ioo — i) 990 

WHAT A COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION MEANS. 

"Correlation expresses to what extent two traits vary coordinately, 
independently, or antagonistically."* For example, scholarship varies 
coordinately with intelligence, independently of an alphabetic list of 
the class and antagonistically to the presence of ill health. In other 
words, (i) the best scholar is most likely to be the brightest child in 
the class, the poorest scholar to be the dullest child in the class; (2) 
the best scholar is no more likely to be the student whose name is 
Aaron than Zullen, and the same is true respecting the poorest scholar ; 
(3) the best scholar is most likely to be the child with the least sickness, 
while the poorest scholar is most likely to be the child with the most 
sickness. 

A coefficient of correlation of +1.00 means that the two traits vary 
coordinately and perfectly so ; a correlation of +0.75 means that the 
traits vary coordinately but not perfectly so ; a correlation of o means 
that the two traits vary independently; and a correlation of — i.oo 
means that the two traits vary antagonistically. Coefficients of corre- 
lation range, then, from +1.00 thru o to — i.oo; any single number 
having a certain significance on a scale from coordinate variability, 
thru independent variability to antagonistic variability. 

The correlation of +0.60 which was obtained between initial per- 
formance and final performance in the mirror-drawing experiment 
means that on the whole the best at the start was best at the end, 
the poorest at the start was poorest at the end, the fifth at the start 
was fifth at the end, etc. If it had been exactly this relationship we 
would have had a correlation of +1.00. As we had less than +1.00, 
i. e., +0.60, it means that a few of the individuals were out of place 
from this perfect arrangement. This we find in the cases of G, B, and 
H ; G advancing from seventh to first place, B dropping back from 
first to fourth place, and H advancing from tenth to seventh. Besides 
these decided changes in position, all the other individuals except E 
change place to a slight extent. Now in the case of our second case 
with its correlation of +0.16 we have a statement which indicates that 
there is practically no relationship between the two sets of figures. 
We can expect that only to a very slight extent will it be true that the 
best at the start will be the best at the end and the poorest at the start 
will be poorest at the end. Rather will we expect to find decided difTer- 

♦Joseph Jastrow, Character and Temperament, 1915, p. 509. 



Aj 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


I J 


232 


76 


210 


363 


216 


286 


283 


701 


129 131 


133 


70 


108 


132 


110 


97 


76 


98 


84 75 


88 


54 


71 


121' 


75 


89 


56 


72 


55 49 


89 


53 


60 


86 


75 


81 


43 


55 


59 38 


61 

ain ti 


50 
he cor 


58 
relatio 


85 
in betv 


52 
veen tl 


70 
he fifth 


35 
per 


60 
formance 


40 36 
: and the 



LESSON 31 173 

ences between the two groups of figures such as B's change from first 
to last place, G's change from seventh to first place, and H's change 
from tenth to sixth place. 

ASSIGNMENT FOR LABORATORY HOUR. 

Obtain the coefficient of correlation for the problems given below. 
Do as many of these problems as you can during the laboratory hour. 
Check up your answer for each example, thru consultation with the 
instructor, before going on to the next problem. 

Records of Ten Individuals in Mirror-Drawing Experiment. 
Trials 

I 

5 
10 

15 
20 

I. 

final performance in the mirror-drawing experiment. 

2. Obtain the correlation between the tenth performance and the 
final performance. 

3. Obtain the correlation between the fifteenth performance and the 
final performance. 

4. Suppose the following grades had been given to ten students in 
High School, what would be the correlation between their grades in 
(a) algebra and English, (b) algebra and Latin, and (c) algebra and 
biology ? 

English Latin Biology 

A F 83 

A— D— 94 

B+ D 86 

B C— 72 

B- C 91 

C+ C+ 88 

C B— 69 

C- B 95 

D A- ^^ 

F A 90 

HOW COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION ARE UTILIZED IN PSYCHOLOGY AND 

EDUCATION. 

What you have been working on during the last laboratory hour 
seems far away from psychology. In a sense it is mathematics and 
not psychology. In another sense it is just as much psychology as any 
other topic which has been discussed in the course. Let us consider 
some examples where this mathematics is essential for the development 
of psychological or educational principles. 

The writer in his "Relative Merit of Advertisements"* wished to 
determine whether the results he had obtained in rating the efficiency 

•Edward K. Strong, Jr. Relative Merit of Advertisements, 1911, p. ?|.|5. 





Algebra 


A 


98 


B 


96 


C 


93 


D 


89 


E 


85 


F 


84 


G 


82 


H 


80 


I 


75 


J 


70 



174 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

of advertisements by a laboratory method would check up with 
business conditions. He therefore correlated the results he had 
obtained by two different laboratory methods with each other and with 
the ratings of these advertisements as furnished him (a) by the owners 
of the business and (b) by the advertising agency representing the 
business concern. He obtained these correlations : — 
Correlation between the results of the two laboratory methods +0.95 
Correlation between the results of first laboratory method and 

the company rating +0.89 

Correlation between the results of first laboratory method and 

the agency rating +0.87 

Correlation between the results of second laboratory method 

and the company rating +0.84 

Correlation between the results of second laboratory method 

and the agency rating +0.92 

Correlation between the company rating and the agency rating +0.87 
Apparently then the laboratory methods of estimating the efficiency 
of these advertisements were as accurate as the methods of the company 
or of its advertising experts. That meant that the writer who knew 
nothing about advertising in those days, nor about this particular 
business, could determine the efficiency of its advertisements as accu- 
rately as could the men who made these things their specialty. 

Take another example. Professor Yerkes of Harvard University 
has recently devised a series of tests (The Yerkes-Bridges Point Scale 
Test) whereby the general intelligence of children can be estimated 
surprisingly accurately. Professor Garrison* tried the tests on college 
students and obtained a correlation of only +0.19 between the ratings 
given the students by the Yerkes test and their college grades : also a 
correlation of +0.15 between the test ratings and the combined opinions 
of eight professors as to the students' general ability. Of course neither 
college grades nor the combined opinions of professors accurately 
portray the real ability of college students. We all know that. Still 
they are accurate enough so' that if a test does not correlate with them 
more than +0.19 we judge that the test is practically worthless. This 
low correlation means, then, that Yerkes' intelligence test is of little 
value in classifying adults in terms of their general intelligence. It 
is. on the other hand, as already stated, of great value in classifying 
children. 

When Dr. Kelleyt attacked the problem of how far he could go in 
prophesying what a student would do in high school on the basis of 

•S. C. Garrison, The Yerkes's Point Scale for Measuring Mental Ability, as Applied 
to Normal AdulU, School and Society, June 23, 1917. 
tTruman L. Kelley, Vocational Guidance, 1914. 



LESSON 31 175 

his records in grammar school, he obtained the correlations between the 
student's grades in the 4th to 7th grades (a 7-year grammar school was 
studied) and in the first year of high school. The final correlation was 
found to be +0.79 between grammar school and high school work. 
Kelley urges on the basis of his study that the grades of a child should 
be kept on a card for his entire school career, since they form the 
very best basis now obtainable from which we can estimate what a 
child will do in higher schooling. And it is quite likely when we come 
to know more about vocational guidance that we shall find these records 
of great value in scientifically guiding boys and girls into the careers 
for which they are most adapted. 

These examples are only three out of hundreds that might be given 
all going to show how necessary it is to obtain a coefficient of correlation 
in order to solve many psychological and educational problems. At the 
present point in this course all that is desired is that you obtain an idea 
of how the correlation is obtained and something as to what it means. 
As you progress in your training along psychological and educational 
lines you will run across this topic again and again and after a time 
you will commence to feel at home with the subject. What a correlation 
means is a difficult conception to acquire and cannot be gotten in a few 
minutes or even in a few hours. 

ASSIGNMENT TO BE HANDED IN AT THE NEXT CLASS-HOUR. 

1. Finish all the problems given out during the laboratory period. 

2. Answer the following questions : — 

a. What does a correlation of +1.00 mean? 

b. What does a correlation of — i.oo mean? 

c. What does a correlation of o mean? 

d. Could you have a correlation larger than -f-i.oo or srrialler 

than — I.oo? 

3. Study these two statements until you feel that you comprehend 
somewhat of their meaning: — (i) Two individuals selected at random 
will have a correlation of o with respect to any trait, two brothers will 
have a correlation of about +0.40 with respect to any trait, and two 
twins will have a correlation of about +0.80 with respect to any trait. 
(2) Similarly father and son will correlate about +0.30 while grand- 
father and grandchild will correlate about +0.16. 

Hand in your report drawn up in the usual way at the next class-hour. 



LESSON 32— REVIEW^ 



THE BROADER MEANING OF THE TOPICS CONSIDERED IN THIS COURSE. 

Three basic conceptions have so far been presented : ( i ) all behavior 
is composed of a Situation, Bond and Response; (2) the process of 
learning is typified by a learning curve; and (3) individual differences 
are typified by a normal surface of distribution. 

This course has been so constructed as to help the reader form the 
following bonds : — 

What is the 
situation ? 

^Situation, Bond, Response >Does a bond 

exist ? 

What r e- 
sponse do I 
want ? 



Any Situation in 
life which cannot 
be immediately re- 
acted to. 



(ditto) 



->Learning Curve 



Rapid, then 
slower learn- 
ing. 
-^Fluctuations. 
Plateaus, etc. 



Normal sur- 
face. 

(ditto) ^Individual Differences ^Majority are 

average men. 
Eflfect of 
Heredity, etc. 

In a more advanced course the complete explanation of the value of 
such organization of material may be given. Here it is sufficient to 
point out by way of illustrations that if, when one is confronted by a 
puzzling problem (situation to which he has no immediate reaction), 
he will think — "Situation, Bond, Response," "Learning Curve," "Indi- 
vidual DifTerences," he will very frequently find a satisfactory solution 
to his difficulty. For in so doing he calls to mind many details of this 
course which may throw light on his problem. 



*CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS 


WRITE UP 


READ 


32 
33 

34 
35 


Discuss, Lesson 3 1 

Review, Les. 1-32 

Examination 

Experiment, Les 3 5 


Lesson 35 


Lesson 32 

Review, Les. 1-32 

Lesson 34 



177 



178 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Suppose you are the advertising manager of a Toasted Corn Flakes 
Co. The problem before you is to prepare an advertisement which 
will sell corn flakes. "Situation, Bond, Response" flashes into your 
mind. "What's that got to do with selling corn flakes?" you ask 
yourself. Then comes to mind the query, "What response do I want?" 
Naturally people buying corn flakes. "What situation will bring about 
such a response ?" First of all, "a situation connected up already with 
eating." "What is such a situation?" "It will soon be vacation time. 
I want a vacation situation." "What will it be?" After some pondering 
you think of the situation, "wife going to the country, husband eats 
breakfast at home," etc. And you prepare an advertisement with a 
husband eating breakfast alone at home with a package of corn flakes 
on the table and a heading, "Wife's gone to the country, but this is a 
good breakfast." 

Suppose again the situation is to pass on an advertisement prepared 
by an artist depicting Venus de Milo and copy about the wonderful 
statue and equally wonderful breakfast food. Again, "Situation, Bond, 
Response" comes to mind. You ask yourself, "will this situation (the 
artist's advertisement) lead naturally to the response I want, i. e., to 
make people buy corn flakes?" You can't see how it will so you turn 
it down. For only most far fetched reasoning can connect "Venus de 
Milo" with "Corn Flakes." 

Suppose you are the employer of a large number of clerks. You 
have tried a young woman of superior attainments with the idea of 
eventually placing her in charge of one section of your office. But she 
isn't making good according to your expectations. The puzzling situ- 
ation confronting you this morning is whether to continue figuring on 
advancing her when she has learned a little more or to hire a new 
woman right away for the position. You need some one to put in 
charge, right now. The learning curve flashes into mind. "Yes, she 
learned rapidly at first — an indication of superior attainments and little 
previous knowledge of the work. But she hasn't progressed for some 
time — must be on a plateau. What's the trouble ? Possibly I can straight- 
en it out and she'll make good." You commence to think of the possible 
causes — is it wrong attitude ? is she trying to advance ? doesn't she like 
the work? is there something in the work she has failed to understand 
which is preventing her advancement? (The thought "learning curve" 
unlocks the knowledge you have about learning and makes your study 
of why she is not progressing much more interesting, for you realize 
that a change by you in the situation confronting her may lead to her 
proper response.) 



LESSON 33 179 

Suppose again, you are the employer of girls whose job is to do filing. 
You are annoyed by the very high turn-over* in your department — 
much higher than other departments. As you ponder over the situation, 
"individual differences" comes to mind. "Yes, the individuals are 
different, they stay with me a shorter time than my other employees. 
The pay is less, but it is above the average for that type of work. 
What's the trouble?" You investigate and find nearly all quit to get 
higher pay, doing other kinds of work. Then "normal surface of 
distribution" flashes to mind. "Maybe," you think, "I can hire less 
intelligent women, women who can do filing but can't do more involved 
things." You stop hiring bright women for this department; instead 
you hire only dull ones, but dull ones who can alphabetize accurately 
and rapidly. 

It is surprising the number of baffling problems about people which 
can be solved by the use of these three "formulas." And to the extent 
that the habit is formed by you, the reader, of thinking from a situation 
you can't solve to 

( 1 ) Situation, Bond, Response. 

(2) Learning Curve. 

(3) Individual Differences. 

to just that extent you will be enabled to utilize the contents of this 
course. 

PREPARATION FOR THE REVIEW. 

The next class-hour (the 33d) will be devoted to a general review 
of the subject of individual differences. Spend the two hours in 
reviewing the subject. The 34th class-hour will be devoted to a written 
examination. 

As an aid in reviewing the subject matter and in organizing it so it 
will be most useful to you in after life write out opposite the three 
headings (i) Situation — Bond — Response, (2) Learning Curve, and 
(3) Individual Differences the significant facts you have so far learned. 

LESSON 33— WRITTEN EXAMINATION 

The next class-hour will be devoted to a written examniation. 

It is not expected that you memorize the formula for obtaining the 
coefficient of correlation. But you should understand how to use it 
and what it means. 

* "Labor turn-over" refers to the number of employees hired during a year to do the 
work of the average empolyee. 



l8o INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

LESSON 34— GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO SOME PHYSIO- 
LOGICAL ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGY 

In the foregoing lessons we have considered some characteristics of 
the learning process and of individual differences. Before going 
further it will be necessary to stop and consider some physiological 
aspects of learning. This must be done in order to give us a clearer 
and more definite idea of some of our terms. 

GENER^\L PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OE THE LEARNING PROCESS. 

So far in this course we have been content to describe human behavior 
as a response to a situation, including in this conception the thought of 
a bond which connects the situation with the response. We have now 
reached a point where it is necessary to scrutinize these three terms 
and see to just what they do actually refer. It is evident, when we 
come to think about it, that in the case where some one says "4 and 6" 
and I answer "10" that there is no material bond of any sort which 
connects the "4 and 6" and the "10." A "situation" and a "response" 
are not then connected together with a "bond" of iron, or wood, or of 
flesh. How then are they connected together? And what is this 
"bond" we have so freely talked about? In order to answer these 
questions and many others of like nature we shall have to turn to the 
science of physiology for help. We shall have to do this because 
the process of hearing the "4 and 6" pronounced is a process depending 
upon the functioning of the ear ; also my answering with the word 
"ten" is a process of moving my mouth and throat ; and third, there 
is a process, it is clear, by which my mouth is made to move after my 
ear has been stimulated. This last process is due to the functioning of 
nerve cells which connect my ear with my mouth and throat. Now 
the science of physiology has for its field of investigation such phenom- 
ena as these processes just mentioned and consequently if we wish to 
understand them more thoroughly we shall have to study its findings. 

In this digression from psychology to physiology we shall have but 
three main problems before us. They are : first, wh-at is the mechanism 
by which situations stimulate us? Second, what is the mechanism for 
making responses? And third, zvhat is the mechanism by which a 
situation is connected zvith its response? All of this information is 
needed in order that we may understand better just how situations in 
every day life can, and do, produce certain responses. 

In order to get a bird's eye view of this material let us consider one 
example in a general way. It is not meant that you should grasp and 
understand all the details of this example, — they will come after the 
following sections have been covered — but rather that you here shall ob- 



LESSON 34 



i8i 



tain an idea of what the whole problem is about. In Plate XXX is illus- 
trated in the simplest way possible the action which results when a 
pin is stuck into one's skin. "The pin being stuck into the skin of 
the arm" (at B) can represent the situation; "the arm jerked away" 
represented here by one muscle (C) is the response ; and the two nerve 
cells, one extending from B to L and the other from E to C form the 
bond. When the pin is stuck into the skin one or more pain-spots in 
the skin at that point are stimulated. This nervous stimulation travels 
over the nerve pathway into the spinal cord. At L the current jumps 
a tiny gap to the second nerve cell. The stimulation then proceeds 
from the spinal cord over this second nerve pathway to the muscles 
of the arm (represented by one muscle here). The stimulation is then 
transmitted to the muscular tissue, causing it to contract and the arm 
is moved away. All of the above is called a reflex act. The whole 
thing is done unconsciously and actually is finished before one feels th** 
pain. 




tlate XXX. Diagram illustrating the simplest forn of reflex 
action. The line A revresents the outor aurfsco of the skin being 
priokefl hy a pin at the point B. D 1* the sensory nerva-fibra ex- 
tending from B into the spinea cord and ending in oontaot with 
branches from the motor uerve-oell(E) . P. is the motor nerve-fibre 
extending from the motor nerre-cellfS). to the muscle (C). C is 
the white area in the spinal cord and H the gray matter. K is the 
sensory nerre-cell of, which D. is a iiart. 

Stinolation at B passes over the sensory nerve-fibre to L, 
jumps the gap to the motor -cell fE) and then -Dasses.oTer the no tor 
nerve-fibre to C causing the muscle to contract. 



THE THREE LEVELS OE NERVE ACTION. 

The nervous process illustrated in Plate XXX involves a sense- 
organ (pain spot in the skin), a muscle, and nerve cells connecting the 
two together by way of the spinal cord. Such a process is spoken of 
as belonging to the "spinal level" of nerve action. When the connec- 
tion between sense-organ and muscle involves the mid-brain it is 



l82 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOIvOGY FOR TEjACHgRS 



grouped in the "intermediate level" ; and when it involves the cortex 
of the brain, it is grouped in the "cortical level" of nerve action. 

The Spinal Level. Connection between sense-organ and muscle 
takes place in the spinal cord. Such connection has already been 
described in connection with Plate XXX. It is also illustrated again 
in Plate XXXI where the stimulation caused by the pin at B causes 
a current to flow from B to L. Part of this current jumps across the 
gap to E and then flows on from E to C resulting in the muscle moving 
(arm jerked away). 




Plate UOa. Siagrami lllustratluj; in oat- 
line form three reeponaea resulting from 
atiffiulatlng the akin by picking it with 
a pinCat B). In the first ease the 
current flons from B to hy way of D, 
X, and £, and the hand la jerked away. 
In the second oaae the onrrent flows 
from B to Q and R by way of D, L, M, M, 
0, and Q or S, L, U, N. t, and R and the 
eyes are focused on the hurt spot. In 
the third oase the current flows from B 
to X by way of D. L, M, H, 8, t, IT, -T, 
and W resulting in a oonsoions nwvenent 
of the left hand noTed over to rub the 
hart svot. 



LESSON 34 183 

The Intermediate Level. In the illustration in Plate XXXI part of 
the current which started at B and flowed to L jumps the gap to M 
instead of to E. It then flows up the spinal cord as far as the base of 
the brain (to the mid-brain). Here part of this current jumps the 
gap from N to O and part to P (actually to other points too). From 
O the current flows to a muscle (Q) which helps turn the head and 
from P it flows to a muscle (R) which helps turn the eye. With the 
help of many such muscles the eye is focused on the hurt spot. In 
this case, as in the first one, we have the response without any con- 
sciousness at all. Altho the spinal cord is involved in this action, the 
connecting of the sense-organ with muscles is in the mid-brain, not in 
the spinal cord. 

The Cortical Level. In the third process, part of the current which 
came up the spinal cord from M to N jumped the gap to S and went 
on up to the cortex of the brain. Here it jumped the gap from T to U 
and then started down through the brain to the spinal cord 
and then down the cord until it came to V. Here it jumped another 
gap to W and then flowed out over this nerve pathway to muscle (X) 
and other muscles not represented. They contracted and the left arm, 
let us say, reached over and rubbed the hurt hand. Now this third 
process is essentially like the other two in the general description of 
the nervous action, except in this last case the current flowed for a 
part of the way thru the cortex of the brain. When it does that we 
are apparently conscious of the process. Due to this third process we 
know that our hand hurts. No one has ever given a satisfactory 
explanation as to how or why consciousness is aroused when nerve 
cells in the cortex are involved but the fact remains that this is so. 
Possibly this analogy may help us grasp the general idea, but it is 
only an analogy after all. Electric current flowing from the dynamo 
over wires in the street and into our houses does not give oflF light, 
but it does give ofif light when it flows over the tungsten filament in 
our incandescent lights. In like manner, apparently, it is only when 
nervous current passes over nerve cells in the cortex of the brain that 
it arouses consciousness (comparable to light in the analogy). 

SUMMARY. 

We have now traced in a rough way how a situation such as "a 
pin stuck into the arm" is connected with three separate responses, 
"jerking the arm away," "focusing the eye on the hurt spot," and 
"rubbing the spot with the other hand." 

The elements involved are (i) sense-organs (the mechanisms which 
receive stimulations), (2) muscles (the mechanisms by which responses 
are made), and (3) nerve-cells which connect the two together. 



184 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Nerve-cells (or neurones, as they are more often termed) may be 
classified as (i) sensory neurones (which connect a sense-organ to 
the spinal cord or mid-brain), (2) motor neurones (which connect the 
spinal cord or mid-brain to a muscle), and (3) connecting neurones 
(which connect all parts of the spinal cord, mid-brain and brain 
together) . 

Depending on the point of connection between the current flowing in 
from the sense-organ and flowing out toward the muscle we speak of 
(i) the spinal level, (2) the intermediate, or mid-brain, level, or (3) 
the cortical (cortex of the brain) level. 

Let us keep constantly in mind this whole process as depicted in 
Plate XXXI and the above paragraphs so that as we proceed to study 
the separate parts we may come to understand them more and more 
thoroughly and to link them up with the whole process, 

LESSON 35— MECHANISM BY WHICH SITUATIONS 
STIMULATE US. 

"Situations" can effect us only by means of sense-organs. It is 
impossible to imagine a situation which has neither feeling, warmth, 
cold, nor painful quality, and cannot be seen, heard, smelt or tasted. 
A wireless message going thru the air is such a phenomenon but it is 
not a situation as it does not aflfect us at all. The wireless operator 
is affected, of course, by his receiving instrument, an apparatus which 
transforms the unseen and unheard vibrations into a series of clicks 
which reach his ear. 

Popularly speaking we have five senses — sight, hearing, taste, smell, 
and touch. Actually we have many more than these, as we shall see. 
Thru these sense-organs we receive all our information of the outside 
world. The purpose of this section is to make clear just how the 
process by which situations stimulate us takes place. 

(During this laboratory hour, read over the discussion which precedes 
each set of instructions and then perform the experiments. Be sure 
you understand the point of each before passing to the next. If you 
do not finish during the laboratory hour, you can do the remainder at 
home as no particular apparatus is necessary) . 

CUTANEOUS SENSATIONS. 

Touch is not a simple sensation but is made up of four kinds of 
sensations — touch, pain, warmth, and cold. The word sensation refers 
to the simplest sort of conscious response which is possible as the result 
of a sense-organ being stimulated. As one explores his skin with the 
point of a knife-blade or toothpick he is conscious of touch, of pain, 



LESSON 35 185 

and of cold. If the knife-blade were warmed slightly, he would also 
from time to time be conscious of warmth. And after he had marked 
the spots on the skin with different colored inks where these different 
sensations were obtained, he would realize that warmth, or cold, or 
touch, or even pain can only be obtained when certain points on the 
skin are touched. At first thought it is rather startling- to think that 
one's skin can be touched in certain places and one will not be conscious 
of it. But this is true. Evidently there are four different kinds of 
spots ; each arousing a different sensation, and besides there are places 
in between where no sensation is aroused as a result of slight pressure 
on the skin. 

Apparatus. A toothpick, pin, two large nails ; black, red, green, and 
purple ink. 

Procedure. 1. Mark off with black ink a |/2-inch square, on the 
under surface of S's ann 2-3 of the way from the wrist to the elbow. 
Remove all hairs. Now explore this area with a toothpick touching the 
skin very gently so that the skin just gives under the pressure of the 
toothpick and record each point at which S (who is blindfolded) 
reports he feels the toothpick. Do not drag the toothpick over the 
skin. Record the points by making a tiny black ink spot on the skin 
wherever you find a touch spot. 

2. Re-explore the area using a pin to discover pain-spots. The 
pressure of the pin should be only slightly greater than with the 
toothpick. S should now report not touch-spots but only those spots 
where slight pain is felt. Record these spots by making a tiny red 
spot on the skin. 

3. Explore this area in the same way for cold spots. The point 
of a lead pencil or of any piece of metal, as a nail, will serve very well 
for this purpose. In this case the point may be dragged along the 
skin. Use green ink to record your cold spots. 

4. Explore this area in the same way for warm spots. Use a 
warmed nail furnished by the instructor for exploring the skin. Use 
purple ink to record your warm spots. (A nail protruding slightly 
from the cork of a bottle containing hot water does very well for this 
purpose. The bottles can be kept immersed in hot water until needed.) 

Results. Satisfy yourself that you have the correct answers to the 
following questions : 

1 . Do you get different sensations when you stimulate the skin with 
a toothpick, a pin, a cold nail and a warm nail? 

2. Are there distinct points on the skin which always g^ve the same 
response, if they give any at all, or can you get different responses from 
the same point on the skin ? 



l86 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

3. Will the toothpick arouse any other sensation than touch ; the 
pin, then pain ; the nail, than cold ; the warmed nail, than warmth ? 

4. Which of the four kinds of spots are most numerous ; which least 
numerous? 

5. Is it possible to touch the skin with a toothpick and obtain no 
response? Are there points on the skin where the pin can be applied 
to the skin and not give pain sensation ? How about the application of 
cold and warm nails? 

6. What relationship exists between touch-spots and the position 
of hairs on the arm ? 

KINAESTHETIC SENSATIONS. 

Kinaesthetic sensations are very similar to touch and pain sensations 
from the skin. They are to be distinguished from the latter in that 
the cutaneous sense-organs are located very near the surface of the 
skin, whereas the kinaesthetic sense-organs are located within the 
muscles of the body and about the tendons which connect the muscles 
with the skeleton. These kinaesthetic sense-organs are somewhat 
similar in structure to the touch sense-organs of the skin. They are 
obviously not aroused by external objects striking them as are cutaneous 
sense-organs, but they are stimulated by the changes in pressure of 
the surrounding tissues upon them. When the arm is doubled up 
certain muscles have contracted to accomplish this motion, 
certain other muscles have at the same time relaxed. Consequently the 
kinaesthetic sense-organs located in the first set of muscles have been 
more or less squeezed while the sense-organs in the second set of mus- 
cles have not been pressed upon as usual. At the same time the 
sense-organs about the tendons have been stimulated in a corresponding 
manner. These changes in stimulation are reported to the brain and 
thru experience are interpreted to mean that the arm is doubled up. 

All of our information, as to where our arms and legs and fingers 
are, is reported to the brain in this way, barring, of course, such addi- 
tional information on this subject as is reported thru the eye or skin. 
"Movements of the body," "weight," and "resistance to movement" 
are very complex sensations due to the brain receiving stimulations of 
varying intensities from thousands of sense-organs scattered thru the 
muscles and about the tendons. It is then thru kinaesthetic sensations 
that we get our basic notion of such physical terms as, "motion," 
"energy" and "mass." 

Apparatus. Simple objects at hand. 

Procedure, i. Endeavor to lift the table by placing one after another 
of the four fingers under the edge of the table and lifting up. Deter- 
mine where the sense-organs are located which are aflFected by this 



LESSON 35 187 

uinvard pressure, and which give you some appreciation of the weight 
of the table. 

2. Shut your eyes and turn the head slowly about from right to 
left. Determine where you obtain part at least of the stimulations 
which tell you the position of your head at each moment. 

3. Shut your eyes and rest your arm on the table in as relaxed a 
position as possible. Let your partner move your fingers about while 
you determine as well as you can how you know where each finger is. 
Cutaneous stimulations are, of course, present, so include them in your 
discussion. But determine what else is present. 

4. Shut your eyes and extend your arms before you palms up. 
Let your partner place two books or similar objects upon your hands. 
Determine how you distinguish which is heavier. 

5. Extend your left arm before you while blindfolded. Then touch 
a point on the left hand with your right forefinger as designated by your 
partner. Determine how you know where your left hand is and how 
you guide the right hand to it. 

6. Write your name as usual ; then with your eyes closed. To 
what extent is the writing of your name determined by (a) cutaneous 
and kinaesthetic sensations and (b) visual sensations? 

7. Close your eyes ; have your partner hold your hand and so move 
it about that you write some short phrase. Can you tell what was 
written by your own hand? In what respect is this situation different 
from that of ordinary writing? 

ASSIGNMENT FOR NEXT CLASS-HOUR. 

Read over the remainder of this section and then write out the 
answers to the above questions. 

CUTANEOUS SENSE-ORGANS. 

From physiology we learn that located just beneath the skin there 
are a number of different kinds of nerve-endings. We do not yet 
know all that we should like to about these nerve-endings, but it does 
appear with a fair degree of certainty that there is a different one for 
each of the four sensations of touch, pain, warmth, and cold. And, 
moreover, that a nerve-ending which gives us the sensation of cold 
never gives us any other sensation but cold. The same applies to the 
other nerve-endings. Each sense-organ gives us a characteristic sen- 
sation and never any other sensation but this characteristic one. This 
fact is important and should be especially noted. But, on the other hand, 
many different kinds of stimulations or situations can produce the same 
sensation. A cold spot for example will produce a sensation of cold: 
(i) when a cold object touches it, (2) when a hot object touches it 
(but not when a warm object touches it), (3) when an object presses 



l88 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

on it (pressure), (4) when it receives a slight electric shock, or (5) 
when certain chemicals, as menthol, stimulate it. In the same way a 
pain spot is aroused and gives us the sensation of pain when : ( i ) it is 
lightly touched, (2) it is affected by extreme cold, (3) it is affected 
by heat (4) it is pressed upon, and (5) it is stimulated by electricity. 
These sense-spots are distributed unevenly over the surface of the 
body, being more frequent on the palms of the hands and on the lips 
than other places and being very infrequent on the back. The total 
number of the various sense-organs also varies exceedingly. They 
appear in the approximate ratio of i warm spot, 10 cold spots, 10 
touch spots, and 40 pain spots. There are certain portions of the 
body which are lacking in one or more of these sense-organs. The 
cornea of the eye lacks warm spots and parts of the cornea lack also 
cold spots. It has pain spots but no touch spots. A portion of the in- 
ner membrane of the cheek is sensitive to touch but not to pain. 

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENSATIONS. 

Besides these four elemental sensations there are various compound 
sensations, such as : heat, burning sensation, hardness, softness, wet- 
ness, dryness, sharpness, smoothness, roughness, itching, tickling, 
creepy sensations, blushing, etc. All of these are made up of certain com- 
binations of the four elemental sensations or of smaller sensations lo- 
cated in the muscles. For example : heat is a fusion of warmth and cold ; 
burning sensation of warmth and pain ; itching is mainly composed of 
pain sensations, as is tickling of touch sensations. The latter can be 
aroused by brushing the hairs of the skin. (At the base of each hair is 
located a touch-spot.) Creepy sensations are a complex, probably, of 
pain and cold. 

Nature's thermometer illustrates this matter of compound sensations 
very nicely. We do not naturally think in terms of degrees of heat, 
but rather in terms of pain, burning hot, hot, lukewarm, no particular 
temperature, cool, cold, biting cold. These various compounds are due 
to different degrees (intensity) of stimulation of certain sense-organs 
and to the various combinations of sense-organs which are stimulated. 
Temperatures of about 86° Fahrenheit (82° to 93° according to the 
temperature to which the body has been adjusted) arouse no sensa- 
tions of temperature. Increasing the temperature from 86** we first 
have the warm spots stimulated, with the resulting sensation (response) 
of lukewarmness. The higher the temperature the more the warm 
spots are stimulated, and the greater is the sensation of lukewarmness. 
At 1 13' cold spots are also stimulated and the resulting fusion of warm 
and cold sensations is heat. Above 122° we have in addition to the 
stimulations of warm and cold sense-organs stimulation of pain sense- 



LiiSSON 35 189 

organs. The fusion of all three gives us the sensations of burning hot. 
In much the same way as we progress from 86" downward in tem- 
perature we get cool sensations and these cold sensations due to cold 
spots being more and more stimulated until 54° is reached. At this 
point pain sense-organs are stimulated. The fusion of cold and pain 
sense-organs give us biting cold and finally pain. Thus our terms, 
"biting cold," "heat," and "burning hot," tho apparently as simple as 
"cold," and "warm," are nevertheless fusions or compounds of these 
two simpler sensations together with "pain." 

Simple Sensations are not Learned. As soon as the entire nervous 
mechanism is in working order after birth, a stimulation of any of 
these four sense-organs will produce its characteristic sensation. In 
other words, we do not need to learn that a stimulation of a cold spot 
has the sensation (response) cold. We are born with a bond con- 
necting such a situation with its response. Such sensations are com- 
parable to reflexes. 

Compound Sensations are Learned. We do need to learn, however, 
that acute touch occurring over an extremely narrow surface means 
sharpness (as with a razor-blade) or that when the finger is moved wJth 
no jars and only touch-sensations result that that means smoothness. 
The compound sensations are learned while the simple sensations are 
not (i. e., are innate). During the early months of life a baby i<: 
engaged very largely in learning what various combinations of touch, 
visual, auditory, etc., sensations mean, i. e., what objects arouse these 
combination, or to put it the other way round, what objects really are, 
as explained in terms of the unlearned responses (simple sensations) 
which he has at his disposal. Review in this connection the description 
of the process by which a baby's perception of a rattle develops, as 
given in Lesson 19. 

In the early months of life we learn thru trial and error that a rat- 
tle requires so much effort to pick up and that the fingers will 
close about it in a certain way. A doll, on the other hand, will re- 
quire more effort and the hand will close about it in a different 
way. With his eyes shut a year-old baby will know a rattle from a 
doll which his hand touches, in terms of differences in the number, 
location, and intensity of the kinaesthetic sense-organs which are 
stimulated and also in the number, location and intensity of the 
cutaneous sense-organs which are stimulated. It is extremely diflficult 
for an adult to appreciate this fact because these fusions are devel- 
oped very early in life and become so automatic as very seldom to 
arouse our interest in them as such. We gain a little notion of theii 
action when we attempt to become experts in distinguishing textiles 



190 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

by their feeling, or in estimating weights as to whether a letter needs 
more than two cents postage, etc. 

In the case of judging textiles we develop certain concepts which 
we use in this work, such concepts being the fusion of certain groups 
of sensations. An expert in textiles will tell you when you inquire as 
to how they know one material from another that it is by the "look 
and feel." Thru practice they have built up certain combinations of 
touch and visual and even auditory sensations which mean a certain 
material. If you press an expert as to how they make these judg- 
ments they usually cannot tell. They are not aware of the separate 
sensations which make up the total combination. A few experts can 
give somewhat of an explanation. Mrs. Blanche E. Hyde says that 
she tells wool by its "bite" and silk by its ''scroop." The sheep's hair 
from which wool is made is not a smooth hair but has little sharp 
points which catch on the skin when handled, as any one knows who 
has worn a flannel shirt. This is for Mrs. Hyde one of the sensations 
which makes up the total "look and feel" of wool. But it is clear that it 
is only one, since she is able to detect wool as it appears in many 
combinations with other materials and manufactured in many ways. 
The "scroop" of silk is apparently a combination of a certain touch 
with a peculiar rustling noise occasioned when two pieces of the 
silk are rubbed together between the thumb and finder. But to the 
writer other materials which are not silk seemingly give forth a 
"scroop" when rubbed, — materials which are ins'tantly named Iby 
Mrs. Hyde. 

The "feel," as we say, for location of keys on a typewriter or 
piano, or of position on a violin, is no more than a realization of par- 
ticular combinations of cutaneous and kinaesthetic sensations. We 
don't know the individual sensations that make up the compound but 
we do know the compound itself, as is shown by the quickness with 
which we notice a false move. 

All of our motor habits are developed principally in terms of kinaes- 
thetic sensations, altho sensations from other sense-organs play a more 
or less important part. For example, in lacing one's shoes, the first 
movement arouses a great number of kinaesthetic, cutaneous and visual 
sensations. This compound then makes up the situation which starts 
the next movement going. The second movement in turn arouses a 
new lot of kinaesthetic, cutaneous and visual sensations. They in turn 
fonn the situation which initiates the third movement, etc. Just 
what part the visual sensations play in handwriting as distinguished 
from the kinaesthetic can be readily seen by writing with the eyes 
open and then with them shut. As there is no way of shutting off the 



Li;ssoN 35 191 

kinaisthetic sensations except by cutting the nerves connecting the 
kinesthetic sense-organs with the brain we cannot teli how well we 
roh'id write if we had only v^isual sensations to guide us. From cer- 
tain types of nervous disorders, however, it is clear that we would 
be fearfully handicapped by such a loss and that our best efforts would 
fall far short of what we now do. Possibly the best way to realize 
this is to have some one hold your hand at the blackboard while you 
are blindfolded and guide your hand so as to write various sentences. 
Here a new lot of kinassthetic sensations are aroused and it is sur- 
prising how difificult it is to judge what one's own hand has written. 

Skill in the use of tools is pretty largely a matter of developing 
groups of compound sensations composed of cutaneous, kinaesthetic 
visual and often auditory sensations. As ordinarily we are not aware 
of the elements, learning to use a plane comes under our type 3b of 
Lesson 9 — learning where the necessary bonds do not exist and where, 
due to the number and complexity of the elements which must be 
fused, we cannot calculate the order of succession of the separate move- 
ments. Consequently, we can only learn to use a plane when working 
with it. The more, however, our instructor explains the plane and 
corrects our faulty moves, the more are we made conscious of the 
details involved in the whole process and of the necessary sequence, and 
the quicker we learn. 

WHAT IS A "situation.?" 

The term "situation" has meant so far "the sum total of all factors 
which bring about a response." This is a good psychological defini- 
tion of it. But in order to have a clearer notion, it is well to realize 
that "the sum total of all factors" may be divided into two parts. 
These are: — (i) an outside factor which is stimulating a sense-organ 
and (2) a sense-organ that is stimulated and that causes a nervous 
current to flow toward a nerve-center. To make the distinction clearer 
consider the example of jerking our hand from a hot stove. There is 
first of all the outside factor of the hot stove in contact with our 
skin, and there is second the inner factor of a sense-organ in the skin 
which responds to this stimulation and further arouses a nervous 
current which causes the muscles to contract and jerk the hand away. 
If the skin were anaesthetized or if the nerve were cut no action 
would follow, even if the hot stove were there. 

When we think of "situations" we must consider (i) what effect 
they have upon the sense-organs of an individual ; but much more 
must we consider (2) the effect within the individual which will re- 
sult — -an effect based upon the individual's instinctive equipment plus 
all of his experiences (habits) in life. 



192 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

If a situation arouses the sense-organ the response which follows 
is the response which the sense-organ produces. In other words, the 
organism can bring about only those responses which outside situa- 
tions initiate, but what the responses are and the general way in 
which they appear is determined by the inherent nature of the organism 
itself. An appreciation of this fact is only just beginning to dawn 
upon the world in general. Its application is leading to a more pro- 
found knowledge of how to advertise, how to sell, how to handle em- 
ployees, how to teach, how to handle people in general. 



LESSON 36. THE EYE: A MECHANISM BY WHICH SITUA- 
TIONS STIMULATE US.* 

In the case of the cutaneous and kinaesthetic sense-organs the 
structure of the sense-organ is relativel}' simple. There the stimulus 
affects the nerve ending in a direct manner. The eye, on the other 
hand, is an elaborate mechanism. 

In order to understand this mechanism it is necessary first of all to 
obtain some idea of the structure of the sense-organ itself and also the 
physical nature of the stimulus. These points will consequently be 
considered and then several other factors of a general nature will 
be presented dealing with normal and defective eye sight. 

STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 

The eye can be best understood if it is compared to a camera. The 
three parts essential to a camera are the box, the lens, and the film. 
Let us consider the structure of the eye with these three divisions 
before us. 

The gross structure of the eye (the box). "The eye has a tough, 
thick outer coat, the sclerotic, to which are attached the muscles that 
move it" about in its socket. "Inside the sclerotic is another mem- 
brane, the choroid, which contains blood vessels and is provided with 
a dense dark pigment that renders the inside of the eye essentially im- 
pervious to all light, save that which comes thru the opening in the 
iris." Inside the choroid is the third layer, the retina, which will be 
discussed later. Note the relationship of these parts in Plate XXXII. 

The lens system is made up of two parts — the cornea and the crys- 
talline lens. The cornea is really only a part of the sclerotic coat. But 
the structure of the tissue is changed somewhat from the remainder 
of the sclerotic layer — being transparent instead of being white and 
opaque. The lens lies just behind the iris, the colored portion of the 
eye. It is attached to the choroid coat by a ligament, which is in turn 
attached to the ciliary muscle. Between the cornea and the lens we 
have a small chamber filled with a liquid much like water (aqueous 
humour). Back of the lens we have another chamber, occupying the 
interior of the eye. This chamber is filled with a jelly-like substance 
(called the vitreous humour). 

The retina (the film). As already pointed out, the retina is the 
inner membrane of the eye. It is really a part of the brain, being 
composed of nerve-cells which in the course of development have 



* CLASS-HOUR IN CLASS V/RITE UP 


READ 


Djscuss, 34, 15 
3 6 Experiment, 3 7 1 
37 Discues. 36, 37 1 Lesson 37 
38 


Lesson 36 



193 



194 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

come to the surface. It is made up essentially of three layers of these 
nerve-cells, the inner layer being composed of what are known as rods 
and cones. (According to Kolliker the cones in the fovea are from 
0.0045 "^''"- to 0.0055 ^^- in diameter, i. e., 0.000177 inches to 
0.0002165 inches. This gives some idea of their minuteness.)* 

Directly opposite the iris and the center of the lens is the fovea. 
This is a point in the retina where there are only cones. It is the point 
oi clearest vision — the part of the eye which receives the greatest num- 
ber of stimulations. This is true, since whenever we are looking 
directly at an object the head and eyes have been so turned that the 
light waves fall up>on this spot. Leading back from the nerve-cells in 




Plate XXXII. Opt., optic nerve; Fov. c, fovea centralis; Scler., sclerotic; Chor., 
choroid; Ret., retina; Conj., conjunctiva; Pr. oil., ciliary processes by means of which 
lens is adjusted; Cam. ant., anterior chamber filled with aqueous humour; p. posterior 
chamber. Just below "p" the capsule and ligament supporting the lens are shown 
attached to the ciliary processes. Corpus vitreum, the vitreous humour of the main 
cavity of the eyeball. (From J. R. Angell, Psychology, 1909, Figure 47, published by 
Henry Holt and Company.) 

the retina are nerve-fibres which unite and form the optic nerve which 
proceeds first to the mid-brain and then on to the cerebrum. The rods 
and cones have apparently different functions. Color is perceived 
because of the stimulation of the cones, while light and darkness are 
perceived because of the rods. Especially is this function of the rods 
true as regards vision in dim light. Color blindness is due to an af- 
fection of the cones, while faulty vision in dim light is due to that of 
the rods. 

THE NATURE OF THE LIGHT STIMULUS. 

In both visual and auditory sensations we must distinguish three 
different stages in the sensory excitation. There are first, the physical 

•Ladd and Woodworth, op. cit., 316. 



LESSON 36 195 

stiaiulus, second, a physiological change in the sense-organ, and third, 
the resulting conscious quality. 

The visual physical stimulus is due, so physics teaches us, to vibration 
in the ether, whereas the auditory physical stimulus is due to vibration 
in the air. Such vibrations may vary in three ways: in the rate of 
vibration, in the amplitude of the vibration, or in the form of the wave.* 

(i) Changes in the rate of vibration. The ether may vibrate more 
slowly or more rapidly. When it vibrates at the rate of 390,000,000,- 
000,000 per second we become conscious of the color red. When it 
vibrates at twice this rate (i. e., 757,000,000,000,000 per second) we 
become conscious of violet. The other colors fall in between these two 
extremes. Beyond these two extremes are other vibration rates which 
are known to physics but which do not stimulate the retina. Ultra- 
violet rays do not affect the human camera but they do affect the 
film of a kodak. Other such rays invisible to man are the X-rays, and 
the rays by which wireless messages are sent. Changes in the rate 
of vibration within certain limits are responsible then for the particular 
colors that are consciously seen. 

(2) Changes in the amplitude of the vibration result in differences 
in the intensity of the colors, i. e., in the brightness of the color. Ampli- 
tude refers to the amount of back and forth swing to the vibration. If 
one strikes a tuning fork it gives forth a loud tone at the start when 
the prongs are swinging back and forth vigorously and as this move- 
ment dies down the tone becomes weaker and weaker. Here there is 
a change in the amplitude as the vibration dies down but no change in 
the rate of vibration. Suppose in the case of light we have 390,000,000,- 
000,000 vibrations per second striking tlie retina, giving us the sensa- 
tion red. Now if the amplitude was practically zero, i. e., there was 
practically no back and forth swing, this red would appear practically 
black. As the amplitude was increased one would have successively, 
brown, dark red, red, bright red, pink, and with a very great amplitude, 
white. Changes in the amplitude, then, determine the amount of 
white or gray or black that is seen either alone or in combination with 
a color. 

(3) Changes in the form of the wave. The ether may be vibrating 
so as to produce pure red or pure blue or it may be vibrating so as to 

♦Those unfamiliar with these terms will do well to experiment with a guy-wire sup- 
porting a telephone pole, which is attached at the top of the pole send to an anchor in 
the ground. Or a stout string tautly stretched from one end of the room to the 
other will serve the purpose. Strike the wire with a stick or the string writh a pencil 
and note the wave that runs along them. The wire itself does not move forward but 
it so vibrates that a wave does travel and if one will take hold of the far end of the 
wire or string he will note that considerable force is exerted by the wire against its 
end support. In these examples the rate of vibration depends upon the material, 
length, etc., of the wire. The amplitude (size of the wave) depends upon how hard 
it is hit. The form of the wave depends upon whether it is hit once or twice in very 
quick succession, etc. 



196 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

produce red and blue at the same moment. In this case we are not 
conscious of red and blue separately but instead of the color purple. 
White light from the sun is a case where the ether is vibrating to give 
us all the colors simultaneously. With the use of a prism these 
various vibrations can be separated and then we get all of the colors 
instead of their blending, which appears to us as white. 

Change from the physical stimulus to physiological process. The 
physical stimulus — the vibrating ether — having travelled from the 
object outside to the retina affects the rods and cones in some way still 
unknown. A number of theories have been advanced but no one has 
been accepted by all. All that we do know is that here a radical change 
takes place in the form of the light stimulus, for the ether vibrations 
now set up certain physiological or chemical changes in the rods and 
cones. This chemical action is then transmitted along the nerve- 
fibres to the mid-brain and then on to the cortex of the brain. Possibly 
the best analogy to explain the transmission of this chemical change 
is to picture a train of gunpowder along a sidewalk. When a burning 
match is applied at one end the combustion is almost instantaneously 
transmitted to the other end. Combustion is, of course, a simple 
chemical change, so that the spread of the fire is an instance of spread 
of chemical change. Recent experiments prove that CO2 is given off by 
nerve-fibres when engaged in transmitting stimulations, indicating the 
presence of chemical changes in the fibre. Then, too, the fact that the 
nervous impulse travels comparatively slowly, i. e., 100 feet per second 
s'dggests a chemical process. This is very slow as compared with the 
speed of sound which is 1,100 feet per second, or of light with a speed 
of 180.000 miles per second. Electricity in a good conductor will go 
about as fast as light. About all, then, that we can say is that the 
physical stimulus is changed into a physiological one when the light 
waves strike the retina. And from here the stimulus is conveyed over 
several nerve-cells to the optic nerve and over this pathway to the mid- 
brain and from there finally to the cortex of the brain. 

The change from physiological process to conscious quality. In the 
cortex of the brain this stimulus which has traversed the optic nerve 
gives rise to the conscious qualities of brightness (black-gray- white) 
and color with which we are all familiar. But here again we know 
nothing as to how the nervous changes in the nerve-cells produce the 
qualities of which we are conscious. 

Hozv zve see the North Star. Because of the molten state of the 
North Star it causes the ether to be set into vibration. This vibration- 
wave is very complex so that when its light-wave is broken up by 



LESSON 36 197 

passing it thru a prism we can obtain many different colors. Altho 
light travels at the incredible rate of 186,000 miles per second, as- 
tronomers figure it takes 44.0 years for the vibration to reach the eye. 
It passes thru the cornea, the aqueous humor, the lens, the vitreous 
humour, and the two outer layers of the retina and finally reaches the 
rods and cones. Here it arouses a physiological process (thru chem- 
ca! changes, possibly somewhat similar to the change produced in a 
kodak film). This process is transmitted to the brain and there inter- 
preted in terms of a spot of light in the dark sky. 

COXVERCENCE. DIVERGENCE AND ACCOMMODATION. 

By means of six muscles attached to each eye, the eye balls may be 
turned in their sockets so that the rays of light from an object, at 
which we are looking, may fall upon the fovea. When the two eyes 
are made to turn inward toward a nearby object the process is called 
convergence. When they are turned outward toward a distant object 
it is called divergence. These little muscles as they relax or contract 
arouse kinaesthetic stimulations which are scarcely ever noticed in a 
conscious way. Nevertheless, estimation of distance is based to a very 
considerable extent upon these stimulations. 

Thru the processes of convergence and divergence the two eyes are 
adjusted so as to be both turned toward the same point. But this is 
not sufficient to secure clear vision. In a camera we must regulate 
the distance of the lens from the film according as the object to be 
photographed is near or far away. In the human eye this adjustment 
is made not by moving the lens but by changing its shape. This 
process is called accommodation. The ciliary muscle controls the lens 
causing it to become more or less convex, thus affecting the con- 
vergence of the rays of light upon the fovea. In monocular vision 
differences in distance up to a few feet can be estimated fairly accu- 
rately in terms of the kinaesthetic sensations arising from the ciliary 
muscle. These estimations are, however, unconsciously made. 

DEFfiCTlVE VISION. 

Myopia and Hyperopia. In the normal eye the distance from the 
cornea to the fovea is 20 millimeters (% of an inch). If now the 
eve is so constructed that this distance is greater than 20 mm. the image 
of distant objects is formed in front of the retina and only near objects 
can be clearly seen (near-sightedness or myopia). On the other hand, 
if this distance is less than 20 mm. then the image of objects will be 
formed behind the retina and the refractive power of the eye must be 
increased to permit of clear vision (long-sightedness or hyperopia). 
"The hyperopic eye must consequently exert an effort of accommoda- 



198 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

tion in order clearly to see objects at a distance, while for near work 
this effort must be excessive. The result is that the hyperopic eye is 
under constant and abnormal strain from the incessant demands upon 
its ciliary muscle, and that, in consequence, numerous secondary symp- 
toms or resultant effects appear, some of them obvious, others unex- 
pected, many of them serious. Local symptoms appear in inflammation, 
redness, or soreness of the eyes, lids or conjunctiva, and in twitchings 
and pain within the eye ball. Aside from these local disturbances, 
perhaps the most constant symptom of hyperopia is frontal or occi- 
pital headache."* 

Both myopia and hyperopia may be counteracted by the use of 
glasses. 

Astigmatism. "In a perfectly normal or ideal eye the refractive 
surfaces, cornea, anterior and posterior surfaces of the lens, are sec- 
tions of true spheres, and, all the meridians being of equal curvature 
the refraction along these different meridians is equal. Such an eye will 
bring the cone of rays proceeding from a luminous point to a focal 
point on the retina, barring the disturbing influence of chromatic and 
spherical aberration. If, however, one or all of the refractive surfaces 
have unequal curvatures along different meridians, then it is obvious 
that the rays from a luminous point cannot be brought to a focal 
point, since the rays along the meridian of greater curvature will be 
brought to a focus first and begin to diverge before the rays along 
the lesser curvature are focused. Such a condition is designated as 

astigmatism. "t 

In a person afflicted with astigmatism there must be a ceaseless 
activity of the ciliary muscle as first one point and then another of a 
scene is focused. In normal vision many of such points can be focused 
at the same time thereby requiring less effort of this muscle and also 
providing fuller and richer vision. Astigmatism can ordinarily be 
corrected by wearing properly fitted glasses. 

Color-blindness. About 4% of men and less than 0.5% of women 
are color-blind. Most of these are red-green blind which means that 
they do not see any difference between these two colors. "Total color- 
blindness, while well-authenticated, is rare, and is presumably a path- 
ological defect." "It is obvious that many callings are, or should be, 
closed to the color-blind, e. g., railroading, marine and naval service, 
medicine, chemical analysis, painting and decorating, certain branches 
of botany, microscopy, mineralogy, the handling of dry goods, mil- 
linery, etc. In some phases of school work, the color-blind pupil is 
likewise at an evident disadvantage. The color-blind test should, ac- 
cordingly, be regularly instituted in the early years of school life, in 

*G. M. Whipple, Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, 2nd edition, 1914, p. J 64. 
tW. H. Howell, A Text-Book of Physiology, 1907, p. 302. 



LESSON 36 199 

order that the existence of the defect may be made known to the child 
as soon as possible."* 

FUSION OF VISUAL AND TACTUAL SENSATIONS. 

Professor Stratton carried on some experiments a number of years 
ago, as follows. He wore constantly for a week a pair of glasses with 
two lenses so constructed that every object appeared upside down. 
"The results showed that an experience coming from such an image 
would in time be indistinguishable from our normal experience. The 
first effect was to make things, as seen, appear to be in a totally dif- 
ferent place from that in which they were felt. But this discord be- 
tween visual and tactual positions tended gradually to disappear; not 
that the visual scene finally turned to the position it had before the in- 
version, but rather the tactual feeling of things tended to swing into 
line with the altered sight of them. The observer came more and 
more to refer his touch impressions to the place where he saw the ob- 
ject to be ; so that it was clearly a mere matter of time when a com- 
plete agreement of touch and sight would be secured under these 
unusual conditions." As Stratton points out "harmony of touch and 
sight can grow up under the greatest variety of circumstances, pro- 
vided merely that the experience remains uniform long enough to de- 
velop fixed expectation.! 

Undoubtedly this is exactly what has happened to each of us in in- 
fancy. The child is engaged in early life in receiving a maze of sensa- 
tions and as certain combinations occur over and over they become 
fused together and finally become thought of as an object. A rattle, 
for example, is at first a hodgepodge of tactual, kinaesthetic, visual, 
and auditory sensations. Eventually it is a rattle having all of these 
various characteristics, and moreover when it is touched in the dark 
the tactual stimulations bring to mind not only tactual notions of the 
rattle but also visual, kinaesthetic, and auditory sensations all fused 
logether into the percept of a rattle. 

SUMMARY 

The eye is merely a mechanism for adjusting physical light 
vibrations so that they will arouse physiological changes in the retina, 
which, in turn, will be conveyed to the brain and interpreted in terms 
of our past experiences. A visual situation must be thought of, not 
in terms of the object itself, but in terms of the nervous processes 
which are aroused by it. 

ORGANIC. GUSTATORY, OLFACTORY, AUDITORY AND STATIC SENS.\TI0NS 

In addition to cutaneous, kinaesthetic and visual sensations, we have 

•G. M. Whipple, op. cit., p. 189. 

tC. M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, 1903, p. 146-149. 



2O0 INTRODLCrORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

several others. Organic sense-organs are similar to cutaneous and 
kinaesthetic, but are located not in the skin or about the muscles, but 
ill and about the internal organs. From these sense-organs we obtain 
the little information that we do receive as to the working of these 
organs. They arouse such sensations as thirst, hunger, nausea, heart- 
burn, suffocation, pain of a general, massive, agony type, and general 
bodily feelings of well or ill. Gustatory sense-organs are located in 
tlie mouth, and olfactory in the upper portion of the nasal cavity. 
Sensations of taste and odor are too familiar to need discussion here. 

Organic, gustatory and olfactory sensations are similar to cutaneous 
and kinaesthetic. A specific stimulus affects a very simple sense- 
organ consisting apparently of not much more than a nerve ending 
and we obtain the sensation characteristic of that sense-organ. 

Auditory situations, on the other hand, are received and affect 
consciousness by means of an elaborate receiving mechanism similar 
to the eye in complexity. It is not essential that the anatomy of the 
ear be mastered. It is sufficient that one realizes that a physical 
stimulation — vibration of the air — is converted within the ear into a 
physiological stimulation which is transmitted over the auditory nerve 
to the brain and that there the air vibration is expressed in con- 
sciousness in the form of different tones and noises and their 
combinations. 

Still another type of situation which affects us is known as the 
"static." We are not directly conscious of it, but only indirectly 
through its influence upon other sense-organs, particularly the organic 
.>tnse-organs. Within the semi-circular canals of the ear and two 
adjacent small bodies are little hairs projecting into the liquid filling 
these organs. Whenever the head is moved, the liquid is disturbed, 
just as water in a glass is disturbed if the glass is moved. The liquid 
in turn disturbs the hairs, which in turn excite the nerves connected 
with them. These stimulations are transmitted to the mid-brain 
and from thence to various sense-centers which control the move- 
ments of the body. Here is the mechanism, for example, which starts 
the movement to regain our equilibrium when we slip on a banana 
peel. Excessive stimulation of these static sense-organs, as in 
swinging in a swing, whirling around, being tossed about in a ship, 
etc., brings about changes in the bodily organs. These changes in turn 
affect the organic seu'^e-organs therein situated and we feel dizzy, 
or seasick, 

REFERENCES 

W. H. Howell, Texl-book of Physiology, 1907, pp. 286-362. 

J. R. Angell, PsycJwloQ^y, 1909, pp. 131-145. 



LESSON 37 20 1 

Ladd & Woodworth, Physiological Psychology, 191 1, pp. 182-196. 
W. B. Pillsbury, Essentials of Psychology, 191 1, pp. 82-95. 
J. D. Lickley, The Nervous System, 1912, Chap. X. 
G. M. Whipple, Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, 1914, 
pp. 164-2CX). 

LESSON 37— HOW DOES ONE ESTIMATE DISTANCE? 

SPACK-PERCEPTION. 

The first few minutes of the laboratory hour will be devoted to a 
viemonstraton of a model of the eye. Be prepared to clear up any 
difficulties you had in obtaining a general idea of the construction 
of the eye. 

We have seen in Lesson 35 that there are four cutaneous sensa- 
tions which are simple experiences and cannot be resolved into any 
simpler sort of consciousness. We have also seen that there are a 
great niany other so-called sensations which appear at first thought 
to be equally simple, such as hardness, softness, dryness, smoothness, 
etc. LJut, on closer study, these can all be resolved into simpler sen- 
sations. These so-called sensations have been referred to as com- 
pound sensations. Compound sensations have been developed thru 
experience — have been learned. Another term of somewhat similar 
meaning is "percept." When we use the expression "compound sen- 
sation" we have reference primarily to the abstract quality, say of 
sharpness; when "percept" is employed we are thinking of the par- 
ticular object which is sharp. Actually, it is very improbable if we 
ever experience "sharpness" as a compound sensation in this sense, 
but rather always think not only of sharpness but also of the object 
which occasions the sharpness. That is, the combination of elementary 
sensations gives us directly the perception of a sharp object. 

But a percept can be and usually is much more complex that a com- 
pound sensation. The percept of an apple includes sensations of 
vision, touch, taste, smell and hearing (sound of crunching a piece of 
apple) whereas a compound sensation has reference to combinations of 
sensations from the same sense-organ. 

Apparently the estimation of any distance is a perception, due to 
the combination of certain sensations experienced together and from 
experience known as "this object" "so far from us." Now we want 
to discover in this lesson and in Lesson 39 some of the factors in 
terms of which v^e perceive that a certain object is nearer than n 
second object and farther away than a third object. For example, 
how do yon know that the tree you see is outside the window instead 



202 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

of inside? How do you know this telephone pole is nearer than 
that one? 

This problem is assigned not only because it is worth while in 
itself, lut because it will illustrate to some extent how we have built 
up thru experience such notions as distance, time, space, height, 
weight, etc. In fact, the fundamental principles of how we have learned 
to estimate distance underlie the development of all our perceptions 
of objects, as a cow, horse, barn, book, etc. 

This problem is also assigned because it illustrates the analysis 
teachers must make of the processes they are to teach. The more 
detailed a grasp of the separate processes involved in using a plane, 
cr saw, or pen, or typewriter he has, the better can the teacher teach 
their use. For when the complex whole has been analyzed into its 
component parts, then the teacher can call the student's attention to 
the parts and aid him in mastering each part and performing them in 
their proper sequence. Otherwise the learning must be entirely a 
"trial and error" performance — the most irritating and inefficient 
way of learning. 

ESTIMATION OF DISTANCE. 

The problem before us primarily is the determination of the relative 
distance of one object in reference to other objects, i. e., is it nearer 
or farther away than some other object? The conversion of this 
idea of relative distance into measurements of distance, such as stat- 
ing its distance in feet, is another matter and will not concern us 
in this experiment. 

If we close one eye and move our finger back and forth toward the 
nose and then away from it, it is clear that we can determine its position 
with regard to our nose very well. How we do this with one eye 
(monocular vision) is one problem. 

If we look with both eyes at near objects and then objects farther 
away (but less than lOO feet), it is again clear that we can determine 
their relative position very well. How we do this with both eyes (binoc- 
ular vision) is a second problem. 

And if we look at distant objects thru the window, it is also clear 
that we can determine their relative distance, although possibly not 
so well. How we do this is a third problem. 

The second problem of binocular vision under loo feet distance will 
be tackled in this lesson; the first and third problems in Lesson 39. 

EXPERIMENT 

'Problem: What are the factors underlying the Perception of 
Distance of Objects within 100 feet zvith Binocular Vision? 



LESSON 37 203 

Apparatus: A number of small objects; a stereoscope and views 
of the Titchener Series. 

Procedure: 

(i) Sekct some narrow object (A), as the string attached to the 
curtain in the window, or the wooden strip between two panes of 
glass in the window, or a drop cord supporting an electric light. Seat 
yourself so that you can look past the object to some other object (B) 
some distance away. Now alternately focus on A and B fifteen to 
twenty times. Note that A appears first as one string and then as 
two strings. Note the change in the strain felt in the eyes. And note 
also changes in the position of your partner's eyeballs when he is 
thus focusing back and forth. 

(2) Select two books (C and D). Stand book C on end upon 
the table with its side about three feet away (placed at three feet to 
exaggerate the phenomenon). Stand book D a few inches nearer and 
with its back towards you. Book D now stands more or less perpen- 
dicular to lx>ok C. Now note the difference in the details which can 
be seen of book D as you look at it alternately with the right eye and 
the left eye. Also observe the differences which can be seen in book C 
under the two conditions — book C acting as a background for the view 
of ]x)ok D. (If you do not discover such differences in book C, move 
your position slightly. But be very careful not to move the head from 
side to side as you look alternately with one eye and the other.) 
Note the following points: (a) The two views are different; (b) the 
points on the back of the book D are displaced more from right to left 
than the points of book C; (c) the view seen by the two eyes together 
is a fusion of what both eyes see — not an average of what the two 
see — and one is not conscious of whether he sees a detail with 
one eye or with the other (not until he has experimented). 

Confirm these points and add any others that are discovered thru 
studying these and other objects about the room. Draw what is seen 
with each eye separately when looking at the two books. 

(3) Carefully note the differences in the details of the two 
photographs which comprise a stereoscopic picture (use, for example, 
Nos. 15, 17, 37, etc., of the Titchener series). Choose two points in 
the picture, one of which is in the very near foreground and the other 
far back in the background. Measure carefully the distance from 
these two points to the right hand edge of the picture in which they 
occur. Note whether a near-point varies more to the right and left 
in the two photographs than a distant point. 

(4) Note slide No. i. Here are two views composed of two dpts 
each. In the right hand view, however, the dots are spaced farther 



204 IXTROULCTOKY FSVCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

apart than in the left liand view. Why, when seen in the stereoscope, 
does one dot appear nearer than the other? Would this occur if the 
spacing between the two dots was the same in the two views? 

Results: Carefully compare your findings in the four experiments. 
What relationship do they bear to one another? Answer the following 
questions, after reading over the section in Lesson 36 on "Convergence, 
Divergence and Accommodation" : 

(i) How do the differences in what is seen by the two eyes of a 
near object differ from what is seen of a distant object? How do the 
differences in objects in the foreground of two stereoscope pictures 
(t-ffer from the differences in objects in the background? Explain. 

(2) Is there any relationship between the differences in the view 
of a book as seen by the two eyes and the differences between two 
siereoscopic pictures? Explain. 

(3) Is it correct to state that when the two views of an object, as 
recorded on the retina of the two eyes, diflFer, then those points which 
differ most are seen as nearby while those points which differ only a 
little are seen as far away? Explain your point of view. 

Application. What general relationship is there between the results 
discovered here and learning in general? 

ASSIGNMENT FOR NEXT CLASS HOUR 

1. Write up the above experiment. 

2. Be prepared to discuss Lesson 36 in class. 

3. During the next few days be gathering data on how you are 
able to determine the relative distance of objects, both of which are 
more than 100 feet away. Jot down every clue that comes to mind. 
(The answers to this problem are very simple, so simple that most 
students overlook them in endeavoring to discover some profound 
proposition.) 



LESSON 38. THE MECHANISM BY WHICH RESPONSES 

ARE MADE* 

In Lesson 34 a bird's-eye view of the whole physiological explanation 
of behavior was presented. This was expressed under three general 
Leadings: Stimulation of a sense-organ (the situation), movement 
of a muscle or muscles (the response), and the connection of sense- 
organ and muscle (the bond). In Lessons 35 and 36 we have studied 
typical mechanisms by which situations affect us. We have seen that 
certain kinds of stimulations arouse a sense-organ to activity and that 
that activity is passed on over nerve pathways to the spinal-cord or 
train. We now shall consider how the response is made to these 
situations. 

In order to have before us a proper perspective, consider again 
the example given in Piaie XXX. There is illustrated the simplest 
possible type of situation and response (reflex action). A pin is 
stuck into the skin. One or more pain and touch spots are stimulated. 
A nervous discharge from these sense-organs proceeds over the 
nervous pathway to the spinal-cord. This current then jumps a gap 
lo another nerve-cell along whose fibre it proceeds until it reaches 
the muscle C. This muscle then contracts and the arm is pulled away. 
(Actuallx, the case is more complex, involving more than one muscle 
and more than one pathway.) This example illustrates a complete 
situation-response functioning. The problems before us are : Just 
how does a stimulated muscle move a portion of the body, and, second. 
how does a nervous current stimulate the muscle and cause it to react ^ 

HOW DOES THE CONTRACTION OE A MUSCLE MOVE A PART OE THE BODY? 

In Plate XXXIII is shown a diagram of the two major muscles of 
the upper arm and their relation to the bones of the arm, forearm, and 
shoulder. The biceps ("4" in the diagram) is attached to the shoulder 
and to the bones of the forearm. In the latter case it is attached a 
short distance beyond the elbow end of the bone. The bones of the 
forearm and upper arm are jointed together somewhat after the 
fashion of a door-hinge. If the biceps should contract, it is clear that 
it would pull the shoulder blade and the bones of the forearm. Either 
the shoulder or the forearm bones would have to move. As the 
slioulder is fastened, the forearm has to swing up. The forearm acts 
like a lever here. 



•CLASS-HOUR 


IN CLASS WRITE UP 


READ 


38 
39 
40 


Discuss, Les. 36, 3 7 

Experi. Les. 39 Lesson 39 

Discuss, Les. 38, 39 


Lesson 38 



205 



206 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHURS 




Plate XXXIII. Motor Mechanism. I. The humerus. 2. The muscle by which the 
joint is straightened (the triceps). 3. Its insertion. 4. The muscle by which the elbow 
is bent (the biceps). 5. Its origin. 6. Its insertion. When the muscle 4 contracts 
by an amount represented by 7 to 8, the amount of motion of the ball will be rep- 
resented by 9 to 11. There is a loss of power which is compensated by an increase ot 
motion. (D. J. Hill, The Elements of Psychology, 1888, p. 401). 

A slight pull on it at 6, where the biceps is attached to it, results in 
a large movement at the finger ends. In compensation for the increase 
in motion at 12 over that at 7, there is a corresponding loss in 
jovver. Contraction of the biceps results, then, in movement of the 
forearm. 

Muscles which have to do with movements of the body are attached 
lo the bones of the body. They are normally in a state of elastic 
tension. In most cases, they are in pairs, as in the case of the forearm. 
One pulls the arm up, the other down. The elastic tension is con- 
ducive to a smooth and very prompt movement. When the biceps is 
stimulated so as to contract, the triceps are stimulated so as to relax, 
and vice versa. 

KOW DOES THE NERVOUS CURRENT STIMUL.\TE THE MUSCLE AND 

CAUSE IT TO REACT.? 

Before answering this question, a few facts need to be considered 
concerning the structure of the muscle. There are two kinds of 
iMUscles: (i) Striated skeletal muscle, and (2) plain muscle. Muscles 
which move the body belong to the first group, while muscles which 
have to do with the blood vessels, alimentary canal, glands of the 
body, etc., belong to the second group. We shall consider here only 
the former group. A skeletal muscle is made up of many fibers 
composed of a single cell, enclosed in an elastic membrane. When 
the motor nerve enters the muscle, it subdivides and subdivides until 
there is at least one nerve fibril attaching itself to each fibre of the 
nmscle. The point of attachment is near the middle of the fibre. 
This point is called a motor end-plate. Returning to our main 
question now, we can see that when a nervous stimulation is trans- 
mitted from the spinal cord to the muscle it reaches, by way of these 
motor end-plates, every fibre in the muscle. The effect of this stimu- 



LESSON 38 207 

lation on the muscle is to produce a chemical change (as yet not very 
well understood) which causes the fibre to contract. Consequently, 
the whole muscle contracts, and its attached bone is moved. 

When a muscle contracts, it gives off heat and electrical energ\- 
and produces work. In other words, the chemical change caused by 
the stimulation of the muscle can be likened to the case of a gas- 
engine, where heat and work result from the combustion of gasoline. 
But the human muscle is a very much more efficient engine than a 
steam or gasoline engine. Only 10 to 15 per cent, of the energy con- 
tained in coal is converted into work by a steam engine, 15 to 25 
per cent, of the energy in gasoline in the case of a gasoline engine, 
whereas from 25 to even 40 per cent, is utilized in the case of a muscle. 
The remainder of the stored-up energy is wasted mainly in the form 
cf heat. In the case of an engine, this is all pure waste, but in the 
case of the animal, much of this heat is utilized in keeping the 
organism warm. 

FATIGUE 

The contraction of the muscle is due to chemical changes. As a 
result of these changes, carbon dioxide gas (CO2), lactic acid 
(C3H6O3), and acid potassium phosphate (KH2'P04) are liberated. 
Glycogen, the form in which digested sugar is stored in the body, 
disappears. Fatigue, which is due to excessive contractions of muscles, 
i.' chemically the loss of glycogen and the abnormal presence of these 
by-products. As a steam engine will cease to run when the coal is 
exhausted or when th^ grates are choked with ashes, so a muscle 
becomes fatigued when the glycogen is used up or the muscle is 
poisoned by the waste products of its combustion. 

Whether work is fatiguing or not depends largely upon whether 
the blood can supply glycogen fast enough to supply the working 
muscle and at the sam- time remove the waste products. The faster 
the muscles are oi^erating, the greater the load upon the heart, lungs 
and blood, and the quicker fatigue will appear. Recently, experiments 
have demonstrated that the establishment of short rest periods thruout 
the working hours tends to lessen fatigue and so permit of a greater 
amount of work being done. The wheelbarrow men, mentioned in 
Lesson i, who could do more work by working twelve minutes and 
resting three minutes in every fifteen minutes, instead of working 
steadily aT day, illustrated this fact. The principle is now well recog- 
nized in industry and is being utilized by many firms. 

As so-called mental work seldom calls for a steady, rapid use of any 
set of muscles, the rest-period principle hardly applies to it as it does 
to hard physical labor. A recess period every hour or two is probably 



208 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



all that is necessary to rest the large muscles which are engaged in 
supporting the body while one is reading or writing. Experimental 
studies of fatigue from mental work show that the amount of fatigue 
is very small. For example, "Heck* gave tests to school children at 
four periods during the day — between 9 A. M. and 9.30 A. M., 
between 11 A. M. and 11 :30 A. M., shortly after i P. M., and about 
2,30 P. M. It appears from this experiment that the amount of work 
done is increased in the later periods, while the accuracy decreased, 
but there does not appear to be any large decrease in efficiency due 
to fatigue."** Table XV shows typical results from one school. 
TABLE XIV. SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF EIGHT CHILDREN AC- 
CORDING TO THEIR INNATE ABILITY IN ADDITION (B-TEST) 
AND MULTIPLICATION (BX-TEST) AND THE TWO SETS 
TAKEN TOGETHER 







PERIODS 




9.00 A. M. 


11.00 A. M. 


1..30 P. M. 


2.30 P. M. 


Amount done 
Accuracy 


100 
100 


100.72 
96.69 


103.63 
95,64 


101.10 
96.38 



The real problem in the school-room is not fatigue, but ennui, lack 
of interest. As Thorndike has repeatedly affirmed, children have too 
little to do rather than too much. They are not supplied with material 
to keep their minds and bodies busy. Any adult who has attempted 
to play with children knows how impossible it is to tire them out. 
They can keep on the jump from morning to night, or build blocks, 
or paste in a scrap book as assiduously as any adult, when they 
v;ant to. 

EXHAUSTION 

Fatigue is a perfectly normal process. It may be defined, 
according to Thorndike, as "that diminution in efficiency which 
rest will cure."t Exhaustion, on the other hand, is a loss of efficiency 
which ordinary rest will not cure. In cases of exhaustion, not onlv 
is the glycogen used up. but also part of the muscular structure itself. 
In consequence, it takes a comparatively long time for one to recover 
from the effects of exhausting work. 

Exhaustion is present in the case of many persons who are forced 
by circumstances to work harder and for longer hours than they can 
really stand. Its elimination is an important industrial and social 

•W. H. Heck. A Study of Mental Fatigrue in Relation to the Dally School Pro-am. 
PsylcSolo^ical Clinic, Vol. 7. 1913-14, pp. 29-34 and 258-260. 

••Quotations and Table XV from F. N. Freeman, How Children Learn, 1917, p. 289, 
tE. L. Thorndike. Educational Psychology, Vol. MI. 1914, p. 112. 



LESSON 38 209 

[•roblem. But fear of exhaustion, on the other hand, does still more 
harm, for it prevents men and women from exerting themselves as 
they should and robs them of the success they might otherwise achieve. 
Aside from worry, a most fatiguing performance, very few of those 
directing their own activities ever exhaust themselves. It is normal 
to go to bed fatigued. Sufficient sleep should cure fatigue and fit 
us for another strenuous day. Happy is the man, like Roosevelt, who 
finds his greatest pleasure in activity. 

WHAT IS A RESPONSB? 

The term "response" has meant so far all those details of an 
individual's action which result from some situation affecting him 
It is well now to consider the term in greater detail. A response 
consists of movements of muscles. But the muscles tnay be those 
that (a) move parts of the body, as the arm, leg, head, etc., or (b) 
affect the internal organs, as the heart, the stomach, the various glands, 
etc. The first type we are all more or less familiar with, since we are 
continually and consciously making such movements and are observing 
them in others. The second type we are not conscious of ordinarily. 
But they play an equally important part in our life. In the quotation 
in Lesson i from "Wednesday Madness," we read "Sam started 
violently" in response to Penrod's "Sam-my and May-bul." And 
"Mabel ceased to swing lier foot, and both, encarnadined, looked up." 
The "starting violently" and becoming "encarnadined" are evidences 
we may note in another of emotional excitement — a term covering 
moverrents of the inner organs. And these responses are more sig- 
1 ific^nt in this case than "ceasing to swing her foot" and "looking up." 

It is related that if a cat is quietly eating her dinner under a table 
and sees a strange dog enter the room, that she will cease eating, her 
fur will stand on end, her tail will rise erect, she will crouch and 
a'-sume the best possible position to flee or fight according to circum- 
stances. This is all we cm see as to her resjwnse to the dog's presence. 
But careful studies have shown that even if the dog leaves the room 
without seeing her and she returns to eating that her digestive organs 
V. ill not resume their activity for 15 to 20 minutes. The response 
to the dog's presence on the part of the inner musculature was to 
increase the heart's action, to expand the breathing area of the lungs. 
to constrict the blood ves'^els in the viscera and dilate those in the 
muscles, thus driving the blood into circulation between heart, lungs 
and muscles, to affect certain glands which give off chemicals, further 
increasing the above effects and even affecting the blood so if the 
cat is wounded the blood will coagulate more quickly, etc. And these 
effects do not immediately cease when the situation changes. 



2IO INTRODliCTOKY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

The above illustrates what takes place under the general heading 
of emotion. Human beings are affected in a similar manner. And, 
apparently, all emotions affect us in much the same way, whether they 
be of fear or joy, of love or hate. 

In selling, for example, it is as important to realize that the 
prospective buyer will react to the sales talk by tones of voice, expres- 
sion of the face and movements, as by words of mouth. And such 
responses, when properly interpreted by the salesman, are more 
helpful in determining what his prospect is really thinking than what 
he says. For the buyer can hardly control movements showing eager- 
ness or irritation, although he may restrain any spoken indication of 
his attitude. 

A response may consist, further, in a train of thought, in the formu- 
lation of a decision, or in an attitude. The latter we saw clearly in 
the mirror-drawing experiment, where some assumed a self-attentive 
attitude and others did not. But such purely "mental" responses are 
accompanied by muscular movements, although they may at times 
bo very slight or seemingly of no connection with the mental processes. 
C^ne only has to watch carefully a person who pretends to be con- 
temptuous of one's teasing to discover slight twitchings at the comer 
of the mouth, or tapping with the foot, etc. — all signs that the teasing 
is being reacted to. 

When one suddenly comes upon a covey of young quail, there is 
immediately a tremendous fluttering in the brush and then an absolute 
quiet. The young birds have reacted to the situation of a man's 
presence by running to cover and then remaining absolutely still. The 
lack of movement is as much a part of the response as the scurrying 
to cover. Here is inhibition of movement as a type of response. 
Careful examination of the young birds while playing 'possum would 
mdicate emotional activity, so that this lack of movement is not 
complete but only of those muscles pertaining to movements of limbs 
and body. 

In everv-day life we are much more likely to overlook responses to 
a situation which cause lack of bodily movement than of responses 
where the individual does something. Sometimes the absence of 
movement, when ordinarily movement is to be expected, is just the 
response to be noted. For example, candy having disappeared from 
a table drawer, three children are suddenly confronted with the 
question, "Who took the candy?" Two chorus out "Not me! What 
candy?" The third, after ten seconds, in a more subdued voice, 
responds "Not me." The temporarily inhibited reply and the entire 



LESSON 39 211 

absence of interest in "what candy" clearly prove the presence of 
important elements in the situation to which the third child is responding 
tl at are absent in the case of the other two. 

Interference between two responses to the same situation is some- 
times the cause of r.o response to a situation. For example, as in 
Lesson 17, an individual might have responded to the letter "m" by 
the numeral "47," since "m" was shown with "47" three times. But if 
"m" had also been shown with "12," this same individual would quite 
likely make no response to the letter "m." Closer observation of him 
\.ould have shown s'gns of irritation, for failure to respond due to 
interference of bonds is usually accompanied by emotional disttnbance. 

The response is the sum total of the behavior brought about by a 
situation affecting an individual. It includes movements produced by 
the large muscles of the body or of the small muscles within the body, 
and the total of consciousness involved therein. 

REFERENCES 

W. H. Howell, A Text-book of Physiology, 1907, Chaps. I and II. 
Ladd and Wood worth, Physiological Psychology, 191 1, pp. 536-541. 
P. G. Stiles, The Nervous System and Its Conservation, 1914. 

LESSON 39. HOW DOES ONE ESTIMATE DISTANCE? 

In Lesson 37 we discovered that the visual impressions received by 
the two eyes are not identical. And the same fact was discovered 
concerning two sterescopic pictures. Moreover, we ascertained that 
there was a greater difference between those details of pictures which 
were in the foreground than between those in the background. Depth 
or perspective is clearly added to a picture when two views thus con- 
structed are seen together. How is this accomplished? 

The two eyes must rotate more (converge) when fixated on a near 
object than on a distant object. From experience, we have learned 
v/hen we fixate on a string attached to a window curtain that (a) it 
is this string (not some other object) and (b) it is about so far from 
us. The object aspect of the response is due to stimulation of the 
retina by waves of light from the string, which in turn transmits a 
stimulation over the optic nerve to the brain. The distance aspect is 
due to the kinaesthetic sense-organs in the muscles that rotate the eye 
in order to fixate it on the string. They are stimulated to a certain 
extent and this stimulation is also transmitted over the nerve to the 
brain. There these particular stimulations cause us quite unconsciously 
to add to the object-aspect the idea of the string being located so far 
from us. The total perception — string so far from us — is a fusion, 
then, of visual and kinaesthetic stimulations. 



212 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

Photographs taken for a stereoscope are taken by two cameras 
placed side by side but somewhat farther apart than the distance 
between the two eyes. The photographs over-emphasize the dif- 
ference in the two views as seen by the two eyes. When placed in a 
stereoscope, one must converge his eyes more in order to have both 
eyes fixated on near objects than on distant objects in the two pictures. 
Consequently, we think of them as nearer because always in life when 
we have to converge our eyes upon an object it is nearer than an object 
which requires less convergence. 

The above is the explanation of how in binocular vision we deter- 
mine distances up to loo feet. At lOO feet the eyes are both fixated 
straight ahead. Consequently there can be no greater divergence for 
objects beyond this distance than for loo feet and, accordingly, we 
can not estimate distances beyond this distance on the basis of 
convergence and divergence. 

Now how do we estimate distance up to 6 feet with monocular 
vision, and, second, how do we estimate distance beyond lOO feet? 
It is perfectly apparent that we can do both these things. 

EXPERIMENT 

Problem: What are the Factors Underlying the Perception of 
Distance? (Continued.) 

Apparatus. Three pins. 

Procedure: 

(i) Have S close one eye and then have him note the changes 
that occur in the appearance of a pencil and the resulting sensations 
in the eye as E moves a pencil towards and away from the eye within 
the limits of an inch and six feet. Is S ever at a loss to know just 
how far the pencil is from him? 

(2) In order to determine how accurate is S's ability to estimate 
relative distances, stick two pins into the far end of a table, say six 
feet from S. The line of the two pins should be perpendicular to S's 
line of vision. Now place the third pin between the other two some- 
tmies in front of them and sometimes behind them and ascertain how 
accurately S can determine the relative distance of the middle pin 
as compared with the two outside pins. When this has been done, 
repeat the experiment, S using only one eye. 

Just as a camera has to be adjusted for focusing on near and distant 
objects, so the lens of the eye has to be correspondingly adjusted. 
As has been pointed out in Lesson 36. these adjustments are made 
by contractions or relaxations of the ciliary muscle which is attached 
to the lens. Located in and about the ciliary muscle are kinaesthetic 
sense-organs. Ordinarily we are unconscious of the sensations 



LESSON 40 213 

aroused by these sense-organs. But when the pencil is brought dose 
to the eye, the strain in the ciliary mviscle, in order to secure a clear 
focus, is so unusual that we notice it. Altho we are not ordinarily 
ccnscious of the kinaesthetic sensations caused by movements in the 
ciliary muscles, yet we act in terms of them. That is, thru experience 
we have learned that when the eyes are focused on a very near object, 
the ciliary muscle is under a certain strain, whereas when the object 
is farther away this strain is different. Consequently when confronted 
by an object, the first reaction is to focus it on the retina (a reflex act 
unconsciously done). We then receive (a) visual stimulations from 
the ob'ect which give us our kr.owledge of the object and (b) kinaes- 
tlietic stimulations from the ciliary muscle which give us our knowl- 
edge of the distance of the object from the eye. Rather the two — 
visual and kinaesthetic — sensations fuse together and we perceive 
such and such an object at such and such a distance. The above 
mechanism is an aid to us in estimating short distances of say six feet 
and less. 

(3) Can an individual blind in one eye utilize the factors involved 
in binocular vision in estimating distance? Recall the details dis- 
covered in Lesson 37, part 2, with the books C and D. Note also in 
the same way, but with one eye, the differences in the view of book D 
obtained by swinging the head from side to side. 

Repeat the above procedure, but, instead of moving the head from 
side to side, walk from your window to the next and note such changes 
as may occur in the view of objects at a considerable distance from you. 

(4) Finish up your study of the other factors involved in the 
estimation of the distance of objects over 100 feet away. 

Results : Report your results in the best way you know to bring out 
the principal points of the experiment. 

Questions: (i) In what way does one estimate distances up to 
six feet? 

(2) In what way does one estimate distances of from 6 to 100 feet? 

(3) In what way does one estimate distances over 100 feet? Con- 
sider also the following questions in this connection : 

a. If one did not know the size of an object, say a low hill, would 
that affect his estimation of its distance? Why? Explain. 

b. Is the same distance estimated differently on a foggy dav 
from what it is on a c'ear one? Why do Easterners underestimate 
distance in Colorado? 

c. Do differences in color affect the estimation of distance? 
How? Why? 



214 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

d. Which is easier to estimate the distance of, (a) a man walkiiii^- 

along a road, (b) an auto, (c) a train along a railroad track, or 

(d) an aeroplane in the air? Why? How is the estimation made? 
e. What part can a shadow play in the estimation of distance? 

Application: 

Write up your experiment and hand it in at the next class-hour. 

REFERENCES 

G. M, Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, 1903, 
Chapters VII, VIII. 

W. B. Pillsbury, Attention, 1908, Chapter V. 

J. R. Angell, Psychology, 1908, pp. 172-190. 

E. B. Titchener, Experimental Psychology, Qualitative, Student's 
Manual, 1909, pp. 137-151. 

E. B. Titchener, Experimental Psychology, Qualitative, Instructor's 
Manual, 1909, pp. 228-303. 

W. B. Pillsbury, Essentials of Psychology, 1911, pp. 162-171. 

G. T. Ladd and R. S. Woodworth, Physiological Psychology, 191 1, 

pp. 413-431- 

It is not necessary, nor is it expected of students, to consult these 
references in writing up the experiment. They are listed here for the 
use of any who are interested and wish to devote extra time to the 
subject. 



LESSON 40— THE MECHANISM OF THE CONNECTING 
SYSTEM. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM* 

We now have a fair conception of how a sense-organ is stimulated 
into activity by outside agencies. We also realize that when a muscle 
or a group of muscles is stimulated, it contracts and moves a portion 
of the body. And, from the illustrations given in Plates XXX and 
XXXI, we have obtained a general notion as to how the stimulation 
received in the sense-organ is finally transmitted to the muscles and 
they in turn react. In those three examples we have cases in which 
the current flows from the skin to the muscle (a) by way of the 
spinal cord, (b) by way of the mid-brain, and (c) by way of the 
cortex of the brain. About these three examples we can build a great 
deal of the total conception that is necessary in understanding the 
connecting system. 

The first three points to get clear in understanding the nervous 
system are : First, sense-organs are connected with muscles by zvay 
cf a central station in the spinal cord, mid-brain, or cerebrum. 
Second, the nervous system is made up of these three centrals together 
zvith nerve-fibres running to the sense-organs and to the muscles of 
the body. Third, the function of the nervous system is to connect 
sense-organs zvith muscles. 

In order to obtain a clearer, more accurate conception of the con- 
nections which are made possible by the nervous system, it will be 
necessary to obtain a better notion of the anatomy of the nervous 
system. 

the; neurone 

The nervous system can be roughly divided into four parts: (i) 
The spinal cord, (2) the mid-brain, (3) the cerebrum, and (4) the 
nerves that connect these parts with sense-organs and muscles. All 
of these four parts are composed of something like 11,000,000,000 
nerve-cells combined in various ways. 

The neuroiie. In Plate XXXIV are shown six different nerve - 
cells or neurones as they are more often called. At first glance they 
do not look much alike. A closer study will show that they all have 
certain characteristics in common. Each nerve-cell has f i ) a cell-body 
and (2) certain projections from the cell-body called filaments. The 
cell-body is composed of protoplasm and has a nucleus. The filaments 



•CLASS-HOUP 


IN CLASS 


WRITE-UP 


READ 


40 
41 
42 
43 
44 


Discuss. Les. 38. 39 
Discuss. Les. 40 
Discuss. Les. 41 

Review. Les. 34-41 
Examination 




Lesson 40 

Lesson 4 1 

Review. Les. 34-41 

Review 



«5 



2l6 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY I^OR T^ACH^RS 

can be divided into two kinds : the axon and the dendrites. A nerve- 
cell has one axon but it may have many dendrites. The axon can be 
likened to a cable of telephone wires. It is made up of many fibrils 
similar possibly to the separate wires in the cable. Around these are 
one or two sheaths, possibly of an insulating character but more 
probably for the purpose of supporting and nourishing the fibril core. 
Axons may be infinitesimally short or up to five feet in length in man. 
Ordinarily they have few subdivisions. A bundle of such axons make 
up a nerve. The other type of filament, the dendrite, is usually quite 
short and much branched, often suggesting a bush. 

The neurone has certain characteristics in common with all living 
cells. It is irritable, by which is meant that it responds to certain 
stimulations. It ix)ssesses conductivity, by which is meant that a 
stimulation at one point of its body is transmitted to any other part 
of its body. Besides these two, it probably has also the function of 
either reinforcing or inhibiting the impulse communicated to it. To 
illustrate the reinforcing function, consider the fact that a relatively 
slight pull on the trigger of a gun will produce a relatively great 
response. The stored-up energy in the cartridge is set off at the 
slight impact. In somewhat the same way a nerve-cell may be only 
slightly stimulated but it may respond in such a way as to stimulate 
very nuich more stron^ily the next cell in the series. The neurone as 
a whole then receives and transmits stimulations and in doing so may 
incrca: e or decrease the intensity of the stimulation. 

Turning now to the functions of the various parts of the neurone, 
we must note that "the cell-body has the highly important function of 
serving the nutrition of the whole neurone ; it is necessary for main- 
taining the axon and dendrites in proper condition for work, even the 
it may take no peculiar part in the actual doing of the work."* 

The axon carries impulses away from the cell-body, while the den- 
drites receive impulses from without and transmit the stimulation 
toward the axon. In thinking of the neurone as a link in the chain 
connecting a sense-organ and muscle, we mu't always think of the 
current first stimulating the end of a dendrite and of it then being 
transmitted over the dendrite to the axon and out the axon. The 
nervous current never flows in the reverse direction. f 

THE SYNAPSE 

The synapse is the point of contact between an axon and a dendrite. 
It is still a debated question whether there is actually a gap between 
the axon and dendrite or not, but it is certain that as far as their 

* Ladd and Woodworth, Physiological Psychology, 191 I, p. 288. 

fThe above is true except in the case of the sensory neurones connecting sense- 
organs with the spinal cord. Here the axon on leaving the cell-body divides and one 
branch goes to the sense-organ and the other into the spinal cord. 



LESSON 40 



217 



function is concerned we may speak of the synapse as a functional gap. 
From physics we know that a weak electrical current will jump across 
a small gap in the form of a series of small sparks, but it will not jump 
a large gap. If the strength of the current is increased, the current 
will again jump the larger gap in a series of larger sparks. The 
sir.aller the gap, then, the less the resistance and consequently the 
smaller the current needed to jump the gap. This conception was 
early applied to the synapse. It was supposed that the dendrite and 
axon actually moved toward or away from each other and in doing 




Piatt XXXIV A cell from the spinal ganglion; B, cell from the ventral horn of 
spinal cord; C, cell from the sympathetic, D, cell from the spinal cord; E, pyramidal cell 
from the cerebral cortex; F, cell from the cerebellar cortex; a, axones; d, dendrites; 
c, collaterals; p, peripheral part of the fibre; cl, central part. Arrows indicate the 
direction of conduction for nervous impulses. (Modified from Morris and from Toldt.) 
(From J. R. Augell. Psychology, 1909. Figure 2). 

so decreased or increased the resistance to the nervous current. This 
physical conception has been discarded and in its place is now a 
chemical one. Due to chemical changes in the dendrite and axon, the 
resistance is changed. 

It is a well-attested fact that the nervous current flows over an 
axon at about the rate of lOO feet per second, or approximately an 
inch in 0.0008 second. But it requires 0.004 second for the current 



2l8 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

to cross a synapse, an extremely short distance. This rate across a 
synapse is, moreover, for a well used synapse. It is quite likely that 
the rate is much slower for a little used synapse.* 

Modern psychology makes much of the synapse with its great re- 
sistance to the passage of the nerve impulse, together with its changing 
resistance, in explaining the formation of habits. A habit or memory 
is today conceived of as due primarily to the chemical change in the 
synapse whereby the resistance is lowered, thus permitting the nervous 
current to flow in this particular direction rather than in some other 
direction. (Review here the discussion in Lesson i6 under the heading 
"Physiological Basis for Retention.") 

FUNCTIONING OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

By this time it should be clear that all kinds of behavior are essen- 
tially composed of one or more sense-organs and one or more muscles, 
with their connecting neurones. In some cases the sensory neurone 
directly stimulates the motor neurone, in other cases many neurones 
are interposed between the two. We may then divide up all action of 
man on the basis of these interposing neurones. Very roughly speak- 
ing we can speak of three levels : — 

(i) Connection thru the spinal cord. 

(2) Connection thru the mid-brain. 

(3) Connection thru the cerebrum. 

The three levels differ primarily in the directness with which the 
transfer is made: the higher paths permit more connections and make 
possible the cooperation of a greater number of sensory impulses in 
the control of movement. 

The Loiver Level — Spinal Level, (See Plates XXX and XXXL) 
An essential trait of the lower level has already been repeatedly 
pointed out, i. e., a direct stimulation from the sense-organ results in 
an immediate response by an appropriate muscle. Examples of such 
reflexes are: (i) jerking the hand away from a hot stove, (2) with- 
drawing the part from tickling, etc. In reflexes we have the result- 
ing proper action, because our nervous system has been developed 
thru ages of experience to act this way. In other words, we do not 
learn reflexes; they are organized naturally, just as hair grows on our 
head naturally, or teeth appear in our mouth. 

Thus far we have considered the simplest form of reflex act — due 
to the union of one sensory neurone and one motor neurone. But we 
may have reflexes in the spinal cord where a few or many connect- 
ing neurones intervene between the sensory and motor neurones. If 
one destroys the brain of a frog it will be seen that all the customary 

*A. T. Poffenberger, Reaction Time to Retinal Stimulation, Archives of Psychol- 
ogy, 1912, Chap. VII. 



LESSON 41 



219 



reflexes may be called out by appropriate stimuli. If a bit of paper 
moistened with acid be placed upon the left foot of a frog: (1) the 
leg will be drawn up — a simple reflex. If now the foot be held so 
that it cannot be moved, it will be found that (2) the other foot is 
brought over to remove the stimulus. If this is not successful, (3) the 
muscles of the forelegs and trunk will contract and the contractions 
will continue until the stimulus is removed or the organism becomes 
exhausted. (The same phenomenon can be obtained thru tickling a 
person who is asleep.) What has happened in all these cases? In 
Plate XXXV is shown very roughly the organization of the neurones 
involved in such cases. In the first case the current travels from S 
(the sensory neurone) to M, a motor neurone. With continued stim- 
ulation received via S more and more motor neurones are brought 
into play, as M2, M3, M4, M5, etc. What is much more likely to 
happen is depicted in the right hand part of the Plate where an inter- 




Plato XXJCV. Shov/ing how a sensory neurono (S) may be 
connected directly with various motor neurones (M) 

or indirectly bv means of connecting or intermedi- 
ate neurones (G). i'rcm J. B. lickley, The Nervous 
''vsjjem. 1912, p 40. 

mediate or connecting neurone (C) is included. Here the current 
travels from S to C and then to Mi, or M2, M3, etc. 

Now why have there been these changes in response ? We must sup- 
pose that continued stimulations result in an increase in the nervous 
current which is generated. With a slight amount of current the flow 
is over the most usual pathway because of less resistance at the 
synapse. When that pathway is blocked, the next easiest pathway is 
used. And with greater and greater amounts of nervous current com- 
ing in over the sensory fibre, greater and greater resistance can be 
overcome, resulting in more and more widely separated motor cells 
being stimulated — hence in more and more extended muscular con- 



220 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

tractions. (Review at this point the conception of "overflow of 
energy" given in Lesson 19.) 

The Intermediate Level — Mid-Brain Level. The mid-brain, or 
brain-stem, is the upper end of the spinal cord. In this 
elementary course it is impossible to consider the parts of the mid- 
brain separately, and so all of them will be considered to- 
gether. Their functions are very complex, but after all they may be 
reduced to the same ones which appear in the spinal cord, i. e., con- 
necting sense-organs with muscles, and more particularly connecting 
impressions from many sense-organs together so as to have the most 
appropriate muscular response to all the sense-organ impressions. 
The functions of the mid-brain are: — (i) to serve as reflex centers by 
which the sense-organs of the head may be connected with the muscles 
of the head. To illustrate, note these examples. According to the 
amount of light striking the eye, the pupil is wide open or shut. These 

movements of the pupil result from stimulations from the retina going 
ti the mid-brain and back again to the muscles governing the pupil. In 
the same way most of the movements of the eyes are governed from the 
mid-brain. The medulla, a part of the mid^brain, receives organic 
stimulations from the various parts of the body and in turn stimulates 
the muscles of the heart, blood-vessels, etc., so as to control the rate 
and force of the heart-beat, the diameter of the blood-vessels, etc. The 
function of the mid-brain is (2) to connect the special sense organs of 
the head with the motor neurones of the spinal-cord, and so with the 
muscles of the trunk and limbs. For example : putting the hand up to 
protect the face, jumping at a loud noise, kicking backward as the re- 
sult ©f a blow on the head from behind. (3) to connect the cortex of 
the brain with sense-organs and with muscles. It is probable that all 
the sense-organs excepting smell, are represented in the mid-brain by 
neurones, and that in every case the impulse from a sense-organ is re- 
layed from neurone to neurone in various ganglia in the mid-brain. The 
mechanism of the reflexes in this level is then the same as in the lower 
level. The only diflFerence is that the causes of excitation are more 
numerous and the possibilities of connection are greater. 

REFERENCES 

( I ) Concerning the nervous system primarily. 

W. H. Howell, Text-hook of Physiology, 1907. Chps. Ill, VII to XI. 

W. McDougall, Physiological Psychology, 1908. 

J. R. Angell, Psychology, 1909, Chap. II 

G. T. Ladd & R. S. Woodworth, Physiological Psychologv, 191 1 
Chaps. I to VII, IX, X. 



LESSON 41 221 

W. B. Pillsburv, Essentials of Psychology, 191 1, Chap. II. 

J. D. Lickley, The Nervous System, 191 2. 

P. G. Stiles, The Nervous System and its Conservation, 1914. 

(2) More general references. 

E. L. Thorndike, Educational Psychology, 1914, 3 volumes. 

J. R. Angell, Chapters from Modern Psychology, 191 5, Lesson II. 

G. W. Crile, Man — An Adaptive Mechanism, 1916. 

J. B. Watson, Behavior, 191 7. 

ASSIGNMENT 

The next laboratory hour (Lesson 41) will be devoted to a discussion 
of this Lesson. 

LESSON 41. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF MAN (Cont'd) 

It has already been pointed out that nerve action can be roughly 
divided into three parts : 

( 1 ) Spinal level — connection is made in the spinal cord. 

(2) Intermediate level — connection is made in the mid-brain. 

(3) Cortical level — connection is made in the cerebrum. 

The first two have already been discussed in Lesson 40. We are 
consequently ready to consider the third level. 

THE CEREBELLUM . . 

See Cb of Plate XXXVI, and the smaller body just above "TA" in 
Plate XXXVII for the location of the cerebellum. The cerebellum be- 
longs to the mid-brain level from its position, but because of its cortical 
structure it may be considered here. It is very richly connected by 
neurones with the lower centers and with the cerebrum. But we know 
very little about its functions. However, it seems to be agreed that its 
fimctions are most intimately related to the reception and coordination 
of the senory stimulations which originate zvithin the body itself, e. g., 
i "» the muscles, the viscera, the semi-circular canals of the ear, etc. It 
is thus conspicuously involved in such actions as those by which we pre- 
serve our equilibrium and in general succeed in carrying forward well 
coordinated and balanced movements, like walking, sitting, and stand- 
ing. 

THE CEREBRUM 

Many stimulations from sense-organs are relayed in to the cerebrum, 
are there combined into an organized whole and then relayed out to 
the muscles resulting in coordinated movements in harmony with the 
stimulations received by the sense-organs. The activity may be likened 
tc the army organization. Information is obtained by the soldiers and 
lower officers while on scouting duty. This information is transmitted 



222 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOIvOGY FOR TEACHERS 



up thru the various officers until it finally reaches the commanding- offi- 
cers. These officers, in turn, tranmit orders back down thru the various 
officers until finally the soldiers execute them. A general ordinarily 
neither receives information from a private nor gives him comrmnands. 
So with the brain, it never receives stimulations directlv from the 




Plate XXXVI. The figure at the left shows the general relations of the central 
nervous system to the bones of the skull and spine. The figure at the right display* 
the general contours of the central system as seen from in front. The great ganglionated 
cord of the sympathetic systeni is shown attached to one side of the spinal nerves; 
the other side has been cut away. (Cer) the cerebral hemispheres; (O) the olfactory 
centers; (P) the pons Varolii; (M) the medulla oblangata; (Cb) the cerebellum; (Sp. C) 
the spinal cord; (I) the olfactory nerve; (11) the optic nerve; (III) the oculo-motor 
nerve; (IV) the trochlear nerve; (V) the trigeminus nerve; (VI) abducens nerve; 
(Vll) the facial nerve; (VllI) the auditory nerve; (IX) glossopharyngeal nerve; (X) 
the vagus nerve; (XI) spinal accessory; (Xll) the hypoglossal nerve; (C) the first cer- 
vical spinal nerve; (Dl) the first dorsal, or thoracic nerve; (LI) the first lumbar 
nerve; (SI) the first sacral nerve; (XI) filum terminale; (CSI) superior cervical gang- 
lion of the sympathetic; (CS2) middle cervical ganglion of the sympathetic; (CSS) and 
(DS1) junction of the inferior cervical and the first dorsal ganglion of the sympa- 
thetic; (DSII) the eleventh dorsal ganglion of the sympathetic; (LSI) the first lumbar 
ganglion of the same system; (SSI) the first sacral ganglion also of the sympathetic. 
From J. R. Angell "Psychology," 1909. (Figures 12 and 13.) 

sense-organs (excepting smell) nor directly stimulates muscles to 
move. The lower and intermediate levels of activity stand in between. 
Consider another illustration. The problem 673 x 48 is given one to 
solve. Light waves from the paper containing the problem strike the 
retina. The physical stimulation is changed into a physiological proc- 



LESSON 41 



223 



ess which is transmitted over the optic nerve to the mid-brain. Here 
part of the stimulation is directed to muscles controlUns; the eye and 
head and they so move as to permit one to see the problem in the best 
light, etc. The remainder of the stimulation is relayed to the cortex 
of the brain. Due to long established habits the stimulation is then 
sent from the cortex back thru the mid-brain down the spinal cord and 
to muscles of the arm and I find myself reaching for pencil and paper 
and solving the problem. 

It is probable that only connections made in the cerebrum are con- 
scious. That is, consciousness accompanies only cortical activity. 




Plate XXXVII. "Localization of Cerebral Function. The lower figure shows the outer 
surface of the right hemisphere; the upper, the mesial surface of the left hemisphere. 
In both figures the motor areas are marked by horizontal shading, the sensory by ver- 
tical shading, while the associatory areas are unshaded. The doubtful or partially sen- 
sory or motor areas are indicated by dots. (S) is opposite the fissure of Sylvius; (R) 
above the fissure of Rolando. (M) is above the motor region; (C) above the cutaneous 
and kineasthetic area. (V) indicates the visual region; (O) is below the olfactory re- 
gion. The auditory region is just below the fissure of Sylvius, above (H). (FA) desig- 
nates the frontal, (PA) parietal, and (TA) the temporal association centers. There is 
some evidence that the dotted regions about the sensory and motor areas are areas In 
which particular associations are formed with them. The diagram embodies the results 
of A. W. Campbell, but has been modified in one or two respects to agree with the 
results of Flechsig and Cushing." (From W. B. Pillsbury, "The Essential of Psychol- 
ogy. 191 I, Figure 7, published by the Macmillan Company.) 



224 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

The cerebrum is composed of two hemispheres joined together by 
what is called the corpus calloswn. This is shown in Plate XXXVII 
as a sort of crescent shaped area in the center of the upper illustration. 
This represents the cut-end of the callosum as it must need be severed 
in order to show the inner surface of one of the hemispheres. It is made 
up of fibres which connect one hemisphere with the other. Two land- 
marks need to be pointed out : the fissure of Rolando and the fissure of 
Sylvius. The former is marked by the letter R in the plate and the lat- 
ter by the letter S. 

Recent study of the brain has shown that certain areas of the cere- 
brum are concerned with certain functions, some being primarily con- 
cerned in receiving stimulations from the sense-organs and others in 
controlling movements in the body. 

Sensory Areas, (i) Cutaneous sensations are localized just back of 
the fissure of Rolando (marked by a C in the plate). Stimulations 
from the leg are localized at the top of this area and over on the inside 
surface, stimulations from the trunk are localized further down toward 
the fissure of Sylvius, and stimulations from the head at the lower end 
of the area not far from the fissure. Destruction of this area does not 
affect all varieties of cutaneous sensations equally. "The pain sense is 
little or not at all affected, except temporarily ; the sense of presssure 
and contact is considerably more diminished; the temperature sense is 
so much reduced that only extremes of heat and cold are perceived; 
the muscular sense is almost entirely destroyed ; and the perception of 
form, size, location, etc., by use of the hand is usually abolished."* 

(2) Visual sensations are localized in the occipital region of the cere- 
brum, marked by a "V" in the plate. "It would appear likely that the 
retinas are projected, point for point, tho perhaps not quite so min- 
utely as this, upon the visual cortex."** 

Injuries to certain parts of the visual area produce blindness as re- 
lated to corresponding parts of the retina. We may speak of two types 
of localization here: one which deals with the reception of the simple 
stimulations received from the eye — corresponding to awareness of 
brightness or color, and the other which deals with the interpre- 
tation of these simple stimulations going to make up definite objects, as 
yellow square, a house, or what not. Injuries to the more outlying 
parts of the visual area result in loss of ability to recognize objects, or 
to read, or to utilize vision for purposes of orientation. In such cases 
the patient can still see, but has lost some of the uses of sight. Such 
cases are referred to as psychic blindness. 

*Ladd and Woodworth, op. cit., p. 245. 
••Ladd and Woodworth, op. cit., p. 248. 



LESSON 41 225 

(3) Auditory sensations are localized below the fissure of Sylvius, 
and appear a little above where the H occurs in the plate. In- 
juries to this area, as in the case of the visual area, produce total deaf- 
ness or psychic deafness. The latter is illustrated by such cases as in- 
ability to understand spoken words, or to apprehend melodies. 

(4) Olfactory and taste sensations are located in a great loop 
about the corpus callosum. 

The Motor Area. Voluntary control of muscles of the body is 
located in an area just across the fissure of Rolando from the cutane- 
ous sensation area. And here again as in the case of that area, the 
legs are represented by the upper part of this area, the body next, the 
arms next, and the head at the lower end. In this area are the largest 
nerve-cells in the body. Their axons descend thru the mid-brain and 
cells. Axons from the latter proceed out to the muscles of the body. 

In paralysis we have a condition in which the motor connection 
spinal cord and there come in contact with the dendrites of other motor 
with the muscle has been destroyed. If the injury is in the motor- 
cells of the cerebrum the paralysis relates only to voluntary move- 
ments, while reflexes of the spinal and mid-brain level are not or- 
dinarily afifected. If the injury is in the spinal cord but above the mo- 
tor-cells in the cord then the mid-brain reflexes are destroyed as well 
as all habitual movements. If finally the injury is in the motor-cells of 
the spinal cord then there results complete paralysis of the muscles of 
the body controlled from that part of the spinal cord. 

Another type of paralysis is due not to a destruction of the motor 
connections but to a destruction of the sensory side of the arc. This 
type is found, for example, in tabes dorsalis. The incoming kin- 
aesthetic sensations are largely eliminated because the sensory con- 
nections are destroyed. Walking is seriously interfered with because 
you cannot sense just where your leg is at any moment. Thru train- 
ing such individuals may be taught to guide their movements not as 
they have done in the past in terms mainly of kinaesthetic stimulations 
but in terms of visual stimulations. In this way they are able to walk 
with little suggestion of "drunkenness." 

The Parietal Lobes (marked PA in the Plate) are situated between 
the cutaneous sensation area and the visual area. Injuries to these 
lobes are distinguished by disturbances in ability to conntct Ideas and 
sensations with their proper companions. For example, a file touched 
in the dark does not call up the idea of a file as seen. In other words, 
things seen are not connected up with their auditory or tactual appear- 
ance and hence are improperly understood and interpreted. 

Frontal Lobes. Injuries to the frontal lobes seem to be marked by 



226 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

"disorders of attention,'' concentration, and the higher mental and 
emotional capacities. "An addiction to practical jokes of a weak order, 
with lack of respect for property or the rights of others has been fre- 
quently observed. On the other hand, in some remarkable cases of 
destruction of large parts of the frontal lobe, no marked symptoms 
whatever have appeared." This is true more particularly of the right 
frontal lobe than of the left. Franz first taught a cat and monkey a 
trick, then removed parts of the frontal lobe. In general the trick was 
no longer known. Injury to only part of the lobe resulted in simply 
slowing down the time of performance. Franz concludes that "the 
frontal lobes are concerned in the acquisition of new performances, but 
that no one spot is indispensable for the acquisition of a particular act ; 
and that long continued practice in a performance reduces it to an 
automatic or semi-reflex condition, in which the frontal lobes are no 
longer necessary."* 

Association Centers. A rather small portion of the surface of the 
cortex is thus far accounted for. How shall we explain the function of 
the remainder of the brain's surface? The best authorities would ex- 
plain the function of this remainder as one of association, or of con- 
nection. By this is meant that here the stimulations from the various 
sense-organs are combined together, thus affording responses which 
are appropriate to the whole sensory stimulation. 

For example, the reflex act would be to drop a flat-iron, if the 
handle were too hot. But if there were a kitten on the floor at one's 
feet the resulting action would be to throw the iron into a corner or to 
hold on to it until safely replaced on the stove. In the second case the 
reflex act is prevented by the visual stimulation — the sight of the kit- 
ten. In such a case the cerebral cortex was directing the movement of 
carrying the hot iron. The reflex act of dropping was inhibited (when 
the iron was put back on the stove) or directed into a new movement 
(throwing the iron) by the stimulation coming from the eye. The as- 
sociation centers are supposed to be responsible for such coordinated 
action. 

Before leaving this subject attention should be called to the fact that 
the four phases of knowledge of a language are generally considered 
to be located in four dififerent parts of the cerebrum. Ability to read 
is localized in the visual area, ability to understand spoken words is 
localized in the auditory area, ability to speak is localized in the motor 
area near the center governing muscles of the head, and ability to write 
is localized in the motor area near the center governing arm move- 
ments. It is then possible thru a particular brain injury to lose the 

•Ladd and Woodworth, op. cit., p. 262-63. 



LESSOA 41 227 

ability to read but still to understand what another says, or to speak 
himself and, what is even more surprising, to be able to write, altho, of 
course, unable to read what he has written. The teaching of English, 
for example, must consequently be viewed as the development of four 
groups of habits, instead of one. It is not enough to train a student 
to write good English ; he must also be trained specifically to speak 
good English. There is no doubt that training in one of these four 
groups aids in the other three. But too much reliance has been placed 
upon this in the past Since it is a fact that the brighter the child 
the greater will be this transfer, and the duller the child the less the 
transfer, teachers should deliberately aim t<T develop all four groups 
for the sake of the dull child. 

FUNDAxMENTAL AND ACCKSSSORY SYSTEMS 

Another method of grouping the complicated functions of the nerv- 
ous system is to refer to them under the two headings — fundamental 
system and accessory system. These terms are used so frequently it 
is desirable to become familiar with them in this course. 

''The nerve-centers of vertebrates may be considered as consisting- 
of (i) a fundamental system, comprising the spinal cord and brain- 
stem, and (2) accessory organs developed as outgrowths of the brain 
stem, the chief of these being the cerebellum and cerebrum. (See 
Plate XXXVI.) The development of the accessory structures is very 
unequal in different forms of vertebrate animals : the size of the cere- 
bellum being closely related to the animal's powers of locomotion, and 
the size of the cerebrum with his powers of learning new and specific 
adaptations. The fundamental system is, on the other hand, fairly 
constant thruout the vertebrate series. This is especially true of the 
spinal cord, the size of which seems to depend almost wholly on the 
size of the animal."* 

The fundamental system consists of: (i) Sensory ganglia which 
lie just outside the spinal cord. (In Plate XXX of Lesson 34 one 
sensory neurone is shown extending from the skin to B into the spinal 
cord at L. Its nerve-cell is at K. A cluster of such nerve-cells is called 
a ganglia.) From these ganglia fibres extend out to the sense-organs 
of the body on the one hand and into the spinal-cord on the other. 
It is in this way that the sense-organs are connected with the spinal- 
cord, with the single exception of the sense of smell. Here the sense- 
organs send out their own fibres which extend into the brain. (2) Mo- 
tor-cells, which lie within the spinal-cord, branches of which pass out 
to the muscles. (3) Central-cells, whose branches do not extend to 
sense-organs or muscles, but which run up or down or across in the 

•Ladd and Woodvrorthv 0p. dt., 24. 



228 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

spinal-cord and so bring all the different parts into connection. Most of 
these fibres are short, but there are some sets of long ones, which con- 
nect the spinal-cord directly with the mid-brain. The usefulness of 
these connecting fibres can be readily appreciated as by means of them 
the impressions from all the sense-organs may be combined and thus 
movements may result which are in harmony with the information re- 
ceived from eye, ear, nose, etc. 

The accessory system is composed principally of the cerebellum and 
cerebrtMn. In terms of evolution, these are recent additions to the 
nervous system, as contrasted with the elements making up the funda- 
mental system. The functions of these two organs has already been 
discussed. In addition, the accessory system is characterized by long 
nerve fibres v^^hich connect the cerebrum more directly with lower cen- 
ters. These nerve fibres are spoken of as "long" in contrast with the 
short interconnections of the fundamental system. But the accessory 
system, as already pointed out, never receives stimulations from sense- 
organs (excepting smell) nor transmits stimulations on to the muscles 
except by the way of the fundamental system. 

SUMMARY 

Review again Lesson 34 at this point. Lessons 34 to 41 have been 
presented especially to give a more definite conception of what the 
terms "situation," "bond" and "response" mean. A situation means 
the sum total of all factors stimulating the organism. Physiologically 
the term comprises : 

the external stimuli, 

the stimulated sense-organs, 

the transmission of the stimulation over the sensory nerve-fibres. 
The term bond comprises : 

the transmission of the stimulation from the sensory nerve-fibrvS 

to connecting (intermediate) nerve-fibres and from them to 

motor nerve-cells. 
And the term response comprises : 

the arousal of the motor nerve-cells, 

the transmission of the stimulation over the motor nerve-fibres to 

the muscles. 

the contraction of the muscles. 

The most important phase of the whole series as it affects teach- 
ing is comprised in the term bond. For under this heading we group 
the formation of new bonds (the process of learning), the development 
of these bonds to a good working condition (development of skill thru 
practise), the future use of these bonds when the situation is again en- 
countered (memory), etc. 



LESSONS 42, 43 and 44. GENERAL REVIEW. 

The 42nd class-hour will be devoted to a general discussion of 
Lesson 41. 

The 43rd class-hour will be devoted to a general review of the whole 
course. 

The 44th class-hour will be devoted to a final examination on the 
course. 

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE COURSE 

The course apparently divides up into three parts, i. e. — 

1. The Learning" Process. 

2. Individual Differences. 

3. Physiological Mechanism. 

But the main conception around which everything else is built is that 
man's behavior must be thought of in terms of Situation, Bond and 
Response. In Lessons 34 to 41 the physiological mechanism was brief- 
ly presented so that the terms would be more correctly and definitely 
understood. In Lessons i to 20 various concrete cases were presented 
such as a lesson in the first grade, learning mirror-drawing, commit- 
ting a vocabulary to memory, etc.. and the various details analyzed into 
situation, bond, and response; and in Lessons 21 to 23 thru a study of 
individual differences it was pointed out that individuals differ as re- 
gards the inherent make up of their nervous-system (i. e. the inherent 
nature of the "bond") and also because they have had different situa- 
tions presented to them in the past to which they have reacted. (That 
is, the environment has differed and hence their training, since train- 
ing is a resultant of bond changes due to reacting to situations.) 

Learning is reduced consequently to making connections — forming 
new bonds. And teaching becomes the art and science whereby proper 
situations are presented so that children will react as desired. In so re- 
acting new bonds are constantly being formed and old bonds as con- 
stantly being strengthened thru use. Lessons 45 to 88, which ap- 
pear as another volume, are devoted to a much more detailed considera- 
tion of this whole subject. 

Due to the fact that individuals are confronted by different situa- 
tions in life and that there are great differences in the structure of their 
nervous systems, no two persons learn in exactly the same way or with 
the same facility. On the whole the majority of individuals are much 
alike and can be handled en masse, but many learn much more rapidly 
than this average group and as many learn less rapidly. Because of 
this condition, in order to handle children efficiently in school, it is 
necessary to analyze the causes of each child's behavior in order to 

229 



230 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

pi escribe the proper methods for his greatest development. This is 
being done in many cities today with respect to the dullest of children 
but it must be done eventually with respect to all pupils before we shall 
have arrived at a scientific type of instruction. 

Realization of what this problem of individual differences means 
gives us a new point of view with regard to the whole subject of edu- 
cation. And not only must we view education in a new way but also 
all social problems. The handling of the criminal, of the pauper, of 
the incompetent worker, etc., becomes a different proposition. Al- 
ready, on every hand, are there evidencs that the new point of view is 
having its effect. Changes in our penal institutions, the rise of Juvenile 
Courts, of indeterminate sentences, of parole from penitentiaries, the 
interest in eugenics, in scientific vocational guidance, in personnel work, 
etc., are all related to each other — all manifestations of this same new 
point of view, altho expressed, it is true, very differently by different 
workers. 

In the field of education the overlapping of children in the several 
grades is being studied from many angles and ere long a more satisfac- 
tory solution to this phase of individual differences will appear. The 
old schemes for grading students are doomed and new ones based on 
our further knowledge of how children differ are taking their place. 

The student who has not simply learned about these things but 
has formed the habit of analyzing educational problems into situations 
and responses has gained something which will help him in all his 
work. As an aid in making such analyses this course has been de- 
vised to develop the habits of thinking about learning in terms of a curve 
and of reacting to a problem by asking these questions : 
(i) What specifically is my problem — the problem. 

(2) How may I study this problem — the procedure. 

(3) What are my facts — the results. 

(4) What do the facts mean — the interpretation. 

(5) How can I use the deductions — the application. 

Whether a student has gotten these things from the course or not 
eventually comes down to whether he has the ability to acquire such 
complicated conceptions (bonds) and has had the industry to develop 
them. 



231 



INDEX 



Accessory system, 227ff 

Accommodation, 197 

Alphabet, learning of, laff, z^fl, 2;ff, 

Angell, J. R., 45, 200, 214, 220ft 

Anthony, Kate. 40 

Army intelligence test, I33ff 

Associate shifting, 65flF, 93 

Astigmatism, 198 

Attitude 

affects speed and accuracy, 38 
problem, 5off 
relation to learning, 48flf 
self-attentive. 49ff 
suggestible, soff 
Average deviation 

method of obtaining, 98flf 

use of, as a measure of a group, 

I04ff 
use of, as a measure of individ- 
ual differences, I07ff, 139 
B and B-X Test, logff, i62ff 
Bagley. W. C, 45 
Behavior, 6, i8ff, 21 ff, 42, I77 
Belief, 10 
Book, W. R, 57 
Bond, 3ofif, 42ff, 92flf. 177 
definition of, 228 
factors affecting strength of, 81 ff 
learned or wnlearned, 92. 96 
mechanism of, T8off 
Bradshaw, Annie E., 61 
Breese, B. B., 45 
Brinton. W. C, 47 
Bryan, W. L., 57 
Calkins, M. W., 45 
Carroll, Martha, 160 
Cattell, J. McK., 132 
Cerebellum, 221 
Cerebrum, 221 ff 

Coefficient of correlation, 98, i69ff 
meaning of, 172 
method of obtaining, i7off 
use of, in psychology and educa- 
tion, I73ff 
Color-blindness, 198 
Colvin, S. S., 45 
Complex, 9 

Conduct, evaluation of, 8 
Consciousness, 14, 183, 223 
Cortical level, 221 ff 



Courtis Arithmetic Tests, I36ff, 164 

Courtis, S. A., 137, 138, 167 

Courtis Standard Practice Tests, i66flf 

Cretinism, 136 

Crile, G. W., 137, 221 

Defective vision, I97ff 

de Fursac, J. R., 16 

Dementia praecox, 10 

Denny, C. C, 105 

Distance, how estimated. 201 ff. 21 iff 

Drill, 43, 68 

Dunlap. K., 45 

Ebbinghaus, H., 74, 75, 79 

Emotion, 210 

Environment, as cause of individual 

differences, II 5ff, I59ff 
Exhaustion, see Fatigue 
Experiments, see Table of Contents 
for list of, 4 
instructions for writing up, 24ff, 
32 
Eye, I93ff 

accommodation, convergence, di- 
vergence, 197 
color-blindness, 198 
defective vision, 197 
nature of light stimulus, i94ff 
structure of, I93ff 
Fatigue, 207ff 

exhaustion, 2o8ff 
rest periods, relation to, n. 207 
Feeling, relation to learning. 4SflF, 5iff 
Flight of ideas, 10 
Franz, S. I., 226 
Freeman, F. N., 45, 208 
Garrison, S. C, 174 
Gates, A. I., 72 
Goitre, 136 
Gordon, Kate, 45, 64 
Grades (marks) for scholarship, I40ff 
how to grade papers, 151 ff 
how to record grades, i52ff 
Habits, 92ff, 94, see Learning 

dependent upon kinaesthetic stim- 
uli, i9off 
motor habits, 190 
physiological mechanism of, 2l8 
language, 227 
Hart, B., 9 
Harter, N., 57 
Heck, W. H., 208 



232 



INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 



Heredity, as cause of individual dif- 
ferences, iisff, i59ff 
Hollingworth, H. L., 89 
Howell, W. H., 137, 198, 200, 211, 220 
Hyde, Blanch E., 190 
Individual Differences, 98ff, looff, 
I03ff, logff, iiSff, I26ff, I29ff, 
I43ff, I55ff, iSQff 
ability of children, how diag 

nose, issff 
causes of, iisff 

general law as to how individu- 
als differ, I26ff 
initial and final ability in learn- 
ing, relationship of, io8ff, 173 
in intelligence, 131 ff 
in learning, I04ff 

arithmetical work, i09ff, 

i22ff, I37ff, I55ff, 161 ff 
mirror-drawing, lOoff, I04ff 
Kansas Silent Reading Test, 
lOSff, I34ff 
measured by A. D., gSff, I07ff 
relation to educational problems, 

i65ff, 229 
typified by a normal surface of 
distribution, 177 
Instincts, 92ff, 94 
Interference, 84ff, 165, 216 
Intermediate level, 220 
James, W., 45 
Jastrow, Joseph, 172 
Judd, C. H., 45 
Kansas Silent Reading test, lOSflF, 

Kelley, Truman L., 174 

lyabor turn-over, 179 

Ladd, G. T., 45, 57, 194. 201. 2x1, 214, 

216, 220, 224ff 

language, 21 

physiological basis, 227 
Learning, 96ff, 229ff 

definition of, 42, 229 

habits, or memories, 77 

laws of, 42 

learning and saving methods, 80 

planned or accidental, 53ff 

relearning, 7yff 

types of, 42ff 

typified by a learning curve, 177 

warming-up, 78 
Learning Curves 

characteristics of, 27ff; fiucta- 
tions in, 28, 42 ; physiological 
limit, 38ff, 42, 162; plateau, 
38ff 

effect of attitude upon, 49 



effect of previous training upon, 

ii8ff 
effect of differences in heredity 

upon, i2off 
equation of, 163 
examples of, 13, 38, 117, 119, 121, 

123, 125, 156. 157 
how to plot a curve, 24ff, 46ff; 
"amount" versus "time," 
ii7ff 

diagnosis of ability, 161 ff 
use of, in teaching, ispff, 177; in 
Lesson, object of, 22 
Levels of nerve action, 181 ff 
Lickley, J. D., 201, 221 
Luh, C. W., 61 
McDougall W., 220 
McGahey, Mary L., 41 
Memory, see Retention 
Method, relation to learning, 48ff 
Meyer, Max, 45, 145, 149 
Mid-brain, 220 
Mirror-drawing experiment, 32ff, 

37R, 44ff. 48ff, lOoff, I03ff 
Moron, 132 
Muscle, action of biceps, 205ff 

action of nervous current upon, 

206ff 

mechanism by which responses 
are made, 183 
Nerve-cell, see Neurone 
Nervous system, 

accessory system, 227 

cerebellum, 221 

cerebrum, 221 ff 

fundamental system, 227 

mid-brain, 2i8ff 

motor area of, 225 

sensory area of, 224ff 
Neurone 

description of, 2i5ff 

mechanism by which sense-or- 
gans and muscles are con- 
nected, i83ff 

motor, 184, 227 

sensory, 184, 216, 227 
Norm, 106 
Normal curve of distribution, 98, 131 

applied to grading scholarship, 

I47ff 
surface of distribution, I28ff 
typifies individual differences. 

Overflow of energy, 94 
Paralysis, 225 

Partial identity, law of, 66ff, 7f 
Pavlov, J. P., 63 



IN»£K 



233 



Perception, 94ff, 201 

space — , 201 ft" 
Phillips, M.. 113 
Physiological aspects of psychology, 

i8off 
Physiological limit, 38ff, 42, 162 
Pillsburv, W. B., 45, 201, 214, 221 
Plateau, jSff 
Poflfenberger, A. T., 218 
Prompting method, 68 
Psychology, definition of, 6, 14 

scope of, 5ff, 14 
Reading, i6ff, 21 ff, losfF, 226flf 
Recall memory, 16, 22, 80 
Recognition memory, 16, 22, 80 

recognition method of studying 
retention, 80 
Reflexes, 92flf, 181 ff 
Response, 8, iSff, 21 ff, 29, 42, 177, 219 

definition of, 209, 228 

mechanism of, i8off, 20Sff 
Retention, Ggff. j^fi 

amount of practise, effect upon, 

74 

curve of forgetting, 75 

memorizing a vocabulary, 57ff, 
6iff 

memory span, 7off, 80 

methods employed in studying, 
79ff; prompting, 68; learn 
ing and saving, 80 ; recogni- 
tion, 80 

motor habits, 76 

memonic devices in memorizing, 
67ff 

over-learning, 76 

physiological basis for, 76ff, 218 

primary and secondary, 78ff 

recall memory, 16, 22 

recognition memory, 16, 22 

relearning, 77 

rote memory, 62ff, 84 

time interval, effect upon, 74ff 

warming-up, 78 
Rosanoff, A. J., 10 
Ruger, H. A., 49. 50, 57 
Scientific management, 12 
Seashore, C. E., 45 
Sensations, auditory, I99ff 

cutaneous, i84ff 

definitions of, 184 

fusion of visual and tactual, 199 

gustatory, iggflf 

kinaesthetic, i86ff, 2iifif 



organic, I99ff 

simple and compound, i88ff, 201 

static, I99ff 

visual, i95ff, 21 iff 

Sense-organ, cutaneous, i84ff 
kinaesthetic, i87ff, 21 iff 
mechanism which receives stimu- 
lations, 183 
visual, I93ff, 211 ft' 

Sight spelling lesson, I5ff, i8ff ,22ff, 31 

Situation, 6, iSff, 21 ff, 29, 42, 177 
complex, 9, 19 
definition of, i9iff, 228 
mechanism of, i8off, i84ff 
nature of visual stimuli, I94ff 

Spelling. I5ff 

Starch, D., 57 

Stereoscope, 203, 21 iff 

Stiles, C. W., 71 

Stiles, P. G., 211, 221 

Stimulus, see Situation and Sensation 
cutaneous, 9^ i84ff 
kinaesthetic, 95, i86ff, 2nff 
summation of, 67 
visual, I94ff, 211 

Stratton, G. M., 199, 214 

Summation of stimuli, 67 

Synapse, 2i6ff 

Tarkington, Booth, 6 

Teaching, definition of. 18, 96, 229 

Tests 

B and BX Tests, i9oflF, i62ff 
Courtis Arithmetic, I36ff, 164 
Courtis Standard Practise. i66ff 
Intelligence, Army, I33ff 
Kansas Silent Reading, lOSff, 

I33ff, l37ff 
Memory-span, 70ff, 80 

Thorndfke, E. L.. 46. 90. 208, 221 

Thurstone, L. L., 163 

Thyroid gland, 136 

Titchener, E. B., 46, 203, 214 

Training, cause of individual dif- 
ferences, iisff, I59ff 

Transfer of training, 56ff 

Trial and error, 43. 54^. 7^^^. 93ff 

Vocabulary, learning of, S7ff 

Watson, J. B., 46, 90, 221 

Whipple, G. M., 57, 198, I99, 20i 

Wolf, R. B., 161 

Woodworth, R. S., 45, 57. I94. 20if 
211, 214, 216, 220, 224ft 

Writing, i6ff, 32, 226ff 

Yerkes, R. M., 174 



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